Processes of Memory » Encoding, Storage and Retrieval

What you'll learn this session

Study time: 30 minutes

The three main processes of memory: encoding, storage and retrieval
Different types of encoding (acoustic, visual, semantic)
The multi-store model of memory and its components
How information moves between sensory, short-term and long-term memory
Retrieval processes and memory cues
Key studies that support our understanding of memory processes

Introduction to Memory Processes

Memory is one of the most fascinating aspects of human psychology. Without it, we couldn't learn new skills, remember our friends' names, or even know who we are! Memory isn't a single process but involves three key stages that work together: encoding, storage and retrieval.

Key Definitions:

Memory: The ability to encode, store and retrieve information.
Encoding: The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Storage: Keeping encoded information in memory over time.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

💡 Think About It

Imagine your brain is like a computer. Encoding is like typing information into the computer, storage is saving the file and retrieval is opening the file later when you need it. If any of these processes fails, the memory won't work properly!

📖 Why It Matters

Understanding how memory works helps us learn more effectively, explains why we forget things and can help people with memory problems. It's also useful for everyday life - like revising for exams!

Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory

Encoding is how we transform what we see, hear, think or feel into a memory. There are three main types of encoding:

🔈 Acoustic Encoding

Converting information into sounds. For example, remembering a phone number by saying it out loud repeatedly.

👁 Visual Encoding

Converting information into mental images. For example, picturing the layout of your school to remember where classrooms are.

🧠 Semantic Encoding

Converting information based on meaning. For example, remembering facts about tigers by connecting them to what you already know about big cats.

Key Study: Baddeley's (1966) Encoding Experiment

Baddeley tested different types of encoding by giving participants lists of words to remember. Some words sounded similar (like "cat", "mat", "hat"), while others had similar meanings (like "big", "large", "huge"). People made more mistakes with acoustically similar words, showing that short-term memory often relies on acoustic encoding.

Storage: Keeping Information in Memory

Once information is encoded, it needs to be stored. According to the Multi-Store Model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), we have three memory stores:

The Multi-Store Model of Memory

This model suggests that information flows through three different stores:

👁️ Sensory Memory

Capacity: Very large
Duration: Very brief (0.5-3 seconds)
Encoding: Sensory (what we see, hear, etc.)
Function: Holds sensory information briefly before it's processed or lost

⏱ Short-Term Memory (STM)

Capacity: Limited (7±2 items)
Duration: Brief (15-30 seconds without rehearsal)
Encoding: Mainly acoustic
Function: Holds information we're currently thinking about

💾 Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Potentially lifetime
Encoding: Mainly semantic
Function: Permanent storage of information

Information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory through attention. If we don't pay attention to something, it fades from sensory memory and is forgotten.

Information moves from short-term memory to long-term memory through rehearsal (repeating information) and elaboration (making connections between new information and existing knowledge).

Case Study Focus: HM (Henry Molaison)

HM had parts of his brain removed to treat severe epilepsy. After surgery, he could no longer form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia), though his short-term memory worked fine. He could chat normally but would forget the conversation minutes later. This case showed that short-term and long-term memory are separate systems in the brain, supporting the multi-store model.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory

Retrieval is how we access stored memories when we need them. There are different ways we retrieve memories:

🔎 Recall

Retrieving information without any cues. For example, answering "What is the capital of France?" without any hints. This is the hardest form of retrieval.

✅ Recognition

Identifying information when presented with it. For example, recognizing the correct answer in a multiple-choice question. This is easier than recall.

Retrieval Cues

Retrieval cues are prompts that help us access memories. They can be:

Context cues: Being in the same place where you learned something can help you remember it (context-dependent memory).
State cues: Being in the same emotional or physical state as when you learned something (state-dependent memory).
Category cues: Information about what category a memory belongs to.

Key Study: Godden and Baddeley (1975) - Context-Dependent Memory

Divers learned word lists either underwater or on dry land. They recalled more words when tested in the same environment where they learned them. This shows how context can act as a retrieval cue.

Putting It All Together: The Memory Process

Let's see how encoding, storage and retrieval work together in a real-life example:

🎓 Learning for an Exam

Encoding: You read your notes (visual encoding), say key points aloud (acoustic encoding) and think about what the information means (semantic encoding).

Storage: Information first enters your sensory memory, then moves to short-term memory as you focus on it. Through rehearsal and making connections, it transfers to long-term memory.

Retrieval: During the exam, you recall the information. The exam room (context) and exam questions (cues) help you retrieve the stored memories.

Memory Problems

Problems can occur at any stage of the memory process:

Encoding failure: Not paying attention when learning something new.
Storage decay: Memories fading over time if not accessed.
Retrieval failure: The "tip of the tongue" phenomenon where you know you know something but can't quite remember it.

Improving Your Memory

Understanding the processes of memory can help you improve your own memory:

Use multiple types of encoding (see it, say it, understand it)
Rehearse information regularly to strengthen storage
Create meaningful connections to help with retrieval
Study in the same environment where you'll be tested
Use retrieval practice (test yourself) rather than just re-reading

Summary

Memory is a complex process involving three key stages:

Encoding: Converting information into a form that can be stored (acoustic, visual, semantic)
Storage: Keeping information in memory stores (sensory, short-term, long-term)
Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed (recall, recognition, using cues)

All three processes must work effectively for memory to function properly. Understanding these processes helps us learn more effectively and explains why we sometimes forget things.

🧠 Test Your Knowledge!