Memory as an Active Process » Theory of Reconstructive Memory

What you'll learn this session

Study time: 30 minutes

Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory and his famous "War of the Ghosts" study
How schemas influence our memory reconstruction
The key processes in reconstructive memory: effort after meaning, rationalisation and confabulation
Real-world applications of reconstructive memory theory
Strengths and limitations of Bartlett's theory
How reconstructive memory affects eyewitness testimony

Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Have you ever told a story about something that happened to you, but changed some details to make it more interesting? Or maybe you've noticed that your memory of an event seems different from how others remember it? This is because memory isn't like a video recording that plays back exactly what happened. Instead, our brains actively reconstruct memories each time we recall them.

Key Definitions:

Reconstructive Memory: The theory that memory is not an exact reproduction of past experiences but is reconstructed using stored fragments of information and existing knowledge.
Schema: A mental framework of knowledge and expectations about a particular topic that helps us organise and interpret information.
Confabulation: The process of filling in gaps in memory with fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted information that the person believes is true.

Bartlett's Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Sir Frederic Bartlett (1932) was a British psychologist who challenged the idea that memory works like a tape recorder. He proposed that memory is an active process where we reconstruct events based on our existing knowledge, beliefs and expectations (schemas). This means our memories can change over time and be influenced by our culture, experiences and what we learn after the event.

💡 The War of the Ghosts Study

Bartlett conducted a famous study called "The War of the Ghosts" where he asked British participants to read a Native American folk tale that contained unfamiliar cultural elements. Participants were asked to recall the story multiple times over various intervals.

What Bartlett found was fascinating. As participants retold the story, they:

Shortened the story, removing details they considered unimportant
Rationalised unusual elements to make them more logical
Changed cultural references to fit their own cultural understanding
Added new details that weren't in the original story

For example, "canoes" became "boats," and supernatural elements were either omitted or explained in more familiar terms.

📖 Original vs Recalled Story

Original line: "The young man did not feel sick, but he knew something was happening to him. He told everybody and then he died."

Recalled version: "The young man didn't feel well and he knew he was going to die. He told his friends he was dying and then he died."

Notice how the recalled version fits better with Western ideas about death and illness, showing how cultural schemas influence memory reconstruction.

Key Processes in Reconstructive Memory

🔎 Effort After Meaning

We try to make sense of information by relating it to what we already know. When we encounter something unfamiliar, we interpret it in a way that makes sense to us based on our existing schemas.

Example: A British person hearing about a "powwow" might remember it as a "meeting" or "gathering" if they're unfamiliar with Native American traditions.

🛠 Rationalisation

We modify memories to make them more logical or consistent with our expectations and cultural norms.

Example: In Bartlett's study, supernatural elements like ghosts were often explained away or removed because they didn't fit with participants' rational worldview.

🧠 Confabulation

We unconsciously fill gaps in our memory with invented details that seem plausible. This isn't lying we genuinely believe these details are true.

Example: Adding details to a story that weren't there originally but that make the story more complete or coherent.

The Role of Schemas in Memory Reconstruction

Schemas are mental frameworks that help us organise information. They're like mental filing cabinets for different topics. We have schemas for all sorts of things: what happens at a birthday party, how to behave in a restaurant, what teachers are like, etc.

When we try to remember something, our schemas guide the reconstruction process in several ways:

Schema-consistent information is easier to remember because it fits with what we already know
Schema-inconsistent information might be forgotten or altered to fit our schema
We might add schema-typical details that weren't actually present

Case Study Focus: Schemas and Memory

Brewer and Treyens (1981) asked participants to wait in what they thought was an office but was actually a staged room. After 35 seconds, participants were taken to another room and asked to recall what they had seen.

Many participants "remembered" seeing books in the office, even though there weren't any. Why? Because books are schema-consistent with offices we expect to see them there. This shows how our schemas can lead us to "remember" things that weren't actually present.

Real-World Applications

👤 Eyewitness Testimony

Reconstructive memory has huge implications for the reliability of eyewitness testimony in court. Witnesses may unconsciously:

Fill in gaps in their memory of a crime
Incorporate post-event information (like news reports or conversations with others) into their memory
Reconstruct events based on stereotypes or expectations

This can lead to false identifications and potentially wrongful convictions.

📚 Education

Understanding reconstructive memory helps teachers design better learning experiences:

Connecting new information to students' existing schemas makes it easier to remember
Challenging misconceptions is important because false information can be incorporated into memory
Regular review helps strengthen accurate memories before they get distorted

Evaluating Bartlett's Theory

👍 Strengths

Ecological validity: Using stories rather than nonsense syllables (like earlier memory researchers) made Bartlett's research more relevant to real-life memory.
Practical applications: The theory helps explain real-world phenomena like eyewitness testimony issues and cultural differences in memory.
Modern support: Brain imaging studies show that remembering activates both memory areas and areas involved in imagination, supporting the idea that memory is reconstructive.

👎 Limitations

Methodological issues: Bartlett's methods weren't very standardised and his instructions to participants were vague.
Limited scope: The theory focuses on semantic memory (facts and concepts) but may not apply equally to all types of memory.
Oversimplification: While memory is reconstructive, some memories (especially traumatic ones) can be remarkably accurate and stable over time.

Modern Research on Reconstructive Memory

Elizabeth Loftus has conducted groundbreaking research on how memories can be altered after the event. In her famous "lost in the mall" study, participants were given descriptions of childhood events, including a false memory of getting lost in a shopping mall. About 25% of participants developed a detailed false memory of this event that never happened.

This research shows how easily memories can be implanted and reconstructed, especially when the suggested events are plausible and fit with existing schemas.

Interesting Fact: Flashbulb Memories

Many people have vivid "flashbulb memories" of where they were during major events like 9/11 or Princess Diana's death. People often believe these memories are completely accurate because they're so vivid. However, research shows that even these emotionally charged memories are reconstructed and can change over time, though they may contain more accurate details than everyday memories.

Summary: Key Points to Remember

Memory is not like a video recording but an active reconstruction process influenced by our schemas, expectations and post-event information.
Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study demonstrated how cultural schemas influence memory reconstruction.
Three key processes in reconstructive memory are effort after meaning, rationalisation and confabulation.
Schemas help us organise information but can lead to memory distortions when we add schema-consistent details or alter schema-inconsistent ones.
Reconstructive memory has important implications for eyewitness testimony, education and understanding cultural differences in memory.
While memory reconstruction can lead to inaccuracies, it's actually an efficient system that helps us make sense of the world and focus on what's most important.

🧠 Test Your Knowledge!