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Unlock This CourseMarxism is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology, developed by Karl Marx (1818-1883) and his collaborator Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). It focuses on how economic systems shape society, particularly highlighting class conflict and inequality under capitalism.
Key Definitions:
Karl Marx was a German philosopher, economist, historian and revolutionary socialist. His ideas have had an enormous impact on sociology, economics, politics and history.
Born in Trier, Germany in 1818, Marx came from a middle-class Jewish family. He studied law and philosophy at university before becoming a journalist. Due to his radical political views, Marx was forced to leave Germany and eventually settled in London, where he lived in poverty while researching and writing. He died in 1883 and is buried in Highgate Cemetery, London.
Marx's most famous works include The Communist Manifesto (1848, with Engels) and Capital (Das Kapital, 1867). In these works, he analysed capitalism, predicted its eventual collapse and advocated for a socialist revolution. His writings combine economic analysis, sociological insight and political theory.
Marx developed several influential concepts that remain central to sociological thinking:
Marx argued that history is driven by class struggle. Under capitalism, the conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers) is the key social division. The bourgeoisie exploit workers by paying them less than the value they create - what Marx called "surplus value".
Marx claimed that the economic "base" (means of production) determines the "superstructure" (culture, religion, education, politics). This means that economic relations shape our ideas, beliefs and institutions rather than the other way around.
Workers under capitalism experience alienation - disconnection from their work, its products, their human nature and from other people. Factory work is repetitive and unfulfilling and workers have no control over what they produce.
Engels was Marx's closest collaborator and friend who helped develop Marxist theory and supported Marx financially. He was born into a wealthy German industrialist family but became critical of capitalism after witnessing the terrible conditions of factory workers in Manchester, England.
Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845), documenting the appalling living conditions of industrial workers. He co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx and edited volumes 2 and 3 of Capital after Marx's death. Engels applied Marxist analysis to family structures in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884), arguing that women's oppression emerged alongside private property and class society.
After Marx's death, various thinkers developed and updated his ideas to address new social conditions and criticisms. These "Neo-Marxists" maintained Marx's focus on inequality and capitalism but expanded the theory in important ways.
Gramsci was an Italian Marxist who developed the concept of cultural hegemony while imprisoned by Mussolini's fascist regime.
Gramsci argued that the ruling class maintains power not just through economic control and force, but by making their worldview seem like "common sense" to everyone. The working class consent to their own exploitation because they accept the dominant ideology. This explains why workers don't always rebel despite their exploitation.
Gramsci believed that each social class produces its own intellectuals who articulate its interests. "Organic intellectuals" from the working class could help develop class consciousness and challenge bourgeois hegemony. This might include teachers, union leaders, or community organisers rather than just academic theorists.
Althusser was a French Marxist philosopher who developed theories about how social control operates in capitalist societies.
Althusser distinguished between "Repressive State Apparatuses" (police, military, prisons) that use force to maintain order and "Ideological State Apparatuses" (education, religion, media, family) that reproduce capitalist relations through ideology. Schools, for example, not only teach skills but also instil obedience, punctuality and acceptance of hierarchy - qualities needed for a compliant workforce.
A group of German-American Marxist theorists who combined Marx's ideas with psychology, culture and media analysis. Key figures included Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas.
The Frankfurt School developed "Critical Theory" which examined how mass culture and consumerism pacify the working class. They argued that popular entertainment, advertising and consumer goods create "false needs" that distract people from recognising their exploitation and the possibility of social change.
Marxists argue that schools reproduce class inequality by preparing working-class children for working-class jobs while privileging middle-class students. Hidden curricula and streaming systems maintain social divisions, while private education gives wealthy families additional advantages.
Media ownership is concentrated in the hands of wealthy corporations that promote capitalist values. News coverage often favours business interests and marginalises voices that challenge the economic system. Social media platforms monetise user data for profit while creating new forms of alienation.
Marxists view globalisation as an extension of capitalism that allows corporations to exploit cheaper labour in developing countries. Multinational companies move production to regions with fewer worker protections, while profits flow back to wealthy nations and shareholders.
Marxist scholars interpreted the 2008 global financial crisis as evidence of capitalism's inherent contradictions. They argued that deregulation allowed banks to engage in risky lending practices to maximise profits. When the housing bubble burst, governments bailed out banks while ordinary people lost homes and jobs. The aftermath saw increased inequality as the wealthy recovered quickly while austerity measures affected public services used by working-class communities. This example shows how Marxist analysis can help explain economic crises and their unequal social impacts.