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Unlock This CourseTalcott Parsons (1902-1979) was an American sociologist who developed influential theories about how society works. His ideas about education are part of the functionalist perspective in sociology, which sees society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability.
Key Definitions:
According to Parsons, education serves as a 'bridge' between family and wider society. In the family, children are treated as special and judged by different standards than others (particularistic values). However, in adult society, people are treated according to universal standards and must earn their positions (universalistic values). Schools help children make this transition by treating all students according to the same standards and rules.
Parsons identified two main functions of education:
1. Socialisation - teaching children the shared values of society
2. Role allocation - sorting people into appropriate jobs based on their abilities and skills
Both functions help maintain social order and contribute to society's smooth operation.
A central idea in Parsons' theory is that modern education systems should operate as meritocracies. In a meritocratic system, success depends on individual merit your abilities, efforts and achievements rather than your family background, wealth, or social connections.
Parsons believed that schools help create a meritocratic society in several ways:
Schools evaluate all students using the same tests and standards, regardless of their background. This gives everyone a fair chance to demonstrate their abilities.
Schools teach students that hard work and ability should be rewarded. This prepares them for a society where positions are earned rather than inherited.
Education helps students develop the skills and knowledge they need for different roles in society, allowing them to find positions that match their abilities.
One of Parsons' key insights was that education serves as a crucial bridge between family life and wider society. This transition involves several important shifts:
Particularistic: In families, children are treated as special and unique. They're judged by different standards than others and valued simply for being part of the family.
Ascribed status: In families, a child's position (as son, daughter, eldest, youngest) is fixed at birth.
Diffuse roles: Family relationships involve many different aspects and aren't limited to specific functions.
Universalistic: In schools, all students are treated according to the same standards and rules.
Achieved status: A student's position (top of the class, team captain) is earned through performance.
Specific roles: School relationships are more focused and limited (teacher-student, classmate).
Through this transition, education prepares young people for adult society, where they'll be expected to follow universal rules and earn their positions through achievement.
Parsons argued that a key function of education is to identify students' talents and abilities and direct them toward appropriate roles in society. This process, called role allocation, helps ensure that the most capable people fill the most important positions.
According to Parsons, this process works through:
This system benefits society by ensuring that the most talented individuals fill the most important roles, regardless of their social background.
The 11+ exam in the UK provides a real-world example of Parsons' ideas about role allocation. Introduced after the 1944 Education Act, this exam was used to determine which type of secondary school children would attend: grammar schools (academic) or secondary modern schools (more practical education).
Supporters argued this system identified academic talent and directed students to appropriate education paths based on their abilities. Critics pointed out that middle-class children were more likely to pass the exam, suggesting that social background, not just ability, influenced outcomes.
This example shows both the appeal of meritocratic selection and the challenges of implementing it fairly in real educational systems.
While Parsons' theory provides valuable insights into education's role in society, critics have raised several important objections:
Many sociologists argue that true meritocracy doesn't exist in educational systems. Research shows that social class, ethnicity and gender still significantly affect educational outcomes, suggesting that factors beyond individual merit determine success.
Critics like Pierre Bourdieu argue that education actually reproduces existing social inequalities rather than reducing them. Schools may reward cultural knowledge and behaviours associated with middle-class backgrounds, disadvantaging working-class students.
Marxist sociologists suggest that education primarily serves the interests of the ruling class by preparing workers for their role in capitalist society and legitimising inequality by making it appear based on merit rather than privilege.
Despite these criticisms, many aspects of Parsons' theory remain relevant to understanding modern education systems:
Research by the Sutton Trust in the UK has found that despite efforts to create a more meritocratic education system, social background still strongly influences educational outcomes. Only 32% of pupils on free school meals (an indicator of lower socioeconomic status) achieve 5 good GCSEs, compared to 64% of their wealthier peers.
However, education remains one of the most important paths to social mobility. Those who achieve higher qualifications, regardless of background, tend to have better employment prospects and higher earnings.
This suggests that while Parsons' ideal of pure meritocracy hasn't been fully realised, education still provides opportunities for achievement based partly on individual merit.
Talcott Parsons provided an influential framework for understanding education's role in modern societies. His emphasis on education as a bridge between family and society and as a mechanism for role allocation based on merit, captures important aspects of how educational systems function and are justified.
However, a complete understanding of education requires considering other perspectives, including those that highlight how educational systems may reproduce inequalities or serve particular interests. The gap between meritocratic ideals and the reality of educational outcomes remains an important area for sociological investigation and educational policy.
By understanding Parsons' theory and its limitations, we gain valuable insights into both the potential and the challenges of education as a force for social mobility and equality.