Processes Within Schools » Ball on Teacher Expectations

What you'll learn this session

Study time: 30 minutes

Stephen Ball's research on teacher expectations and their impact on students
How teacher expectations can lead to labelling and self-fulfilling prophecies
The relationship between social class and teacher expectations
The concept of 'ideal pupils' and how it affects educational outcomes
Practical examples of how teacher expectations operate in schools
The implications of Ball's research for educational equality

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Ball's Research on Teacher Expectations

Stephen Ball is a British sociologist who has conducted significant research into how schools work as social institutions. One of his key contributions has been exploring how teacher expectations influence student outcomes and experiences in education.

Key Definitions:

Teacher expectations: The assumptions and beliefs teachers hold about students' abilities, behaviour and potential.
Labelling: The process where teachers categorise students based on certain characteristics, affecting how they treat them.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: When a prediction or expectation influences behaviour in a way that causes the prediction to come true.

Ball's Key Study

Stephen Ball conducted research in a comprehensive school called 'Beachside Comprehensive' in the 1980s. He observed how teachers formed expectations about different groups of students and how these expectations influenced teaching practices and student outcomes.

The 'Ideal Pupil' Concept

Ball found that teachers often had a mental image of what makes an 'ideal pupil'. This wasn't just about academic ability but included behaviour, attitude, appearance and social background.

📖 Characteristics of the 'Ideal Pupil'

Neat appearance
Well-spoken
Polite and respectful
Follows instructions
Shows enthusiasm
Completes homework on time
Participates appropriately in class

💡 How Teachers Form Expectations

Teachers form expectations based on:

First impressions
Student's appearance
Speech patterns and vocabulary
Previous academic records
Behaviour in class
Information from other teachers
Family background knowledge

Social Class and Teacher Expectations

Ball's research revealed that teacher expectations were often linked to students' social class backgrounds. Middle-class students were more likely to match teachers' ideas of the 'ideal pupil'.

Why Middle-Class Students Often Matched the 'Ideal'

Ball found that middle-class students often possessed cultural capital that aligned with school expectations:

💬 Language

Middle-class students often used language patterns similar to teachers, making communication easier and creating a better impression.

🎓 Attitude to Education

These students typically came from families that valued education in ways that matched school expectations.

💼 Cultural Knowledge

They often had exposure to books, museums and cultural experiences that gave them advantages in the classroom.

How Teacher Expectations Affect Teaching

Ball observed that teacher expectations influenced how teachers interacted with different students:

Attention distribution: Teachers gave more attention and time to students they expected to do well.
Question complexity: Higher-expectation students received more complex and challenging questions.
Feedback quality: More detailed and constructive feedback was given to students perceived as high achievers.
Behaviour management: Similar behaviours were often interpreted differently depending on the student's label.

Example from Ball's Research

Ball observed that when a student from a middle-class background asked questions in class, teachers often interpreted this as showing interest and intelligence. However, when a working-class student asked similar questions, it was sometimes seen as not paying attention or disrupting the class.

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Action

Ball's research demonstrated how teacher expectations could create self-fulfilling prophecies through a cycle of interactions:

🔄 The Cycle of Expectations

Teacher forms expectations about a student
Teacher treats student according to these expectations
Student internalises this treatment
Student's behaviour and performance begin to match expectations
Teacher sees this as confirmation of their initial judgement
The cycle continues and strengthens over time

📝 Example Scenario

A teacher assumes Student A will struggle with maths based on their background. The teacher gives Student A easier work, less attention and fewer opportunities to answer complex questions. Over time, Student A loses confidence, puts in less effort and falls behind - confirming the teacher's initial low expectations.

Streaming and Setting

Ball found that teacher expectations were particularly powerful in schools that used streaming or setting (grouping students by ability).

Initial placement: Teacher expectations influenced which stream/set students were placed in.
Movement between sets: There was often limited movement between sets, especially upward movement.
Teaching quality: Higher sets often received more experienced teachers and more engaging teaching methods.
Curriculum differences: Lower sets were often taught a more restricted curriculum with lower expectations.

Ball noted that working-class students were disproportionately placed in lower sets, even when their actual abilities were similar to middle-class peers in higher sets.

Implications of Ball's Research

Ball's work has important implications for understanding educational inequality:

⚠️ Problems Identified

Teacher expectations can reinforce existing social inequalities
Students from working-class backgrounds may face systematic disadvantages
The 'ideal pupil' concept often reflects middle-class values
Streaming/setting can lock students into educational trajectories based on early judgements

💡 Potential Solutions

Teacher training on recognising and challenging unconscious bias
Regular review of student groupings and opportunities for movement
Diverse teaching approaches that value different learning styles
Creating school cultures that recognise multiple forms of achievement
Challenging stereotypes about ability and potential

Critiques of Ball's Work

While Ball's research has been influential, some sociologists have raised critiques:

Deterministic view: Some argue Ball's work can seem too deterministic, not accounting enough for student agency.
Changing educational landscape: Schools have evolved since Ball's original research, with more awareness of these issues.
Other factors: Some suggest Ball focuses too much on teacher expectations and not enough on other factors affecting educational outcomes.

Modern Relevance

Despite these critiques, recent research continues to find evidence supporting Ball's core findings about teacher expectations. Studies show that unconscious bias in teacher expectations remains a significant issue in UK schools today, particularly affecting students from disadvantaged backgrounds, ethnic minorities and those with special educational needs.

Summary: Key Points from Ball's Research

Teachers form expectations about students that influence how they teach them
These expectations often relate to social class and cultural capital
The concept of the 'ideal pupil' typically favours middle-class characteristics
Teacher expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies
Streaming and setting can reinforce and institutionalise these expectations
These processes contribute to educational inequality
Awareness of these processes is the first step toward creating more equitable education

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