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Unlock This CourseNot all students embrace school with open arms. Some actively resist school values and create their own alternative set of norms and behaviours. These groups form what sociologists call anti-school subcultures.
Key Definitions:
Students in anti-school subcultures often show their resistance through:
Understanding anti-school subcultures helps explain:
One of the most famous studies of anti-school culture was conducted by Paul Willis, who followed a group of 12 working-class boys (whom he called "the lads") at a school in the Midlands.
Willis observed how these working-class boys actively rejected school values and created their own counter-school culture. They saw academic work as pointless and "feminine", while valuing "having a laugh", disrupting lessons and challenging authority. For them, manual labour was associated with masculinity and seen as more relevant to their future factory jobs.
Willis argued that by rejecting education, these boys were inadvertently preparing themselves for working-class jobs, thus reproducing class inequality. They were "learning to labour" by developing attitudes that would suit factory work - like dealing with boredom, standing up to authority and valuing physical over mental labour.
Willis's study shows how anti-school subcultures aren't simply about "failing" - they're active choices that make sense within specific social contexts.
Many studies suggest anti-school subcultures are more common among working-class pupils. Several explanations have been offered:
Albert Cohen argued that working-class boys experience "status frustration" when they can't succeed in a middle-class education system. They form anti-school subcultures to gain status among peers instead.
Working-class cultures may value immediate rewards over long-term goals. School requires "deferred gratification" - working now for rewards later - which conflicts with some working-class values.
Basil Bernstein suggested working-class pupils often use a "restricted code" of language that's less suited to academic success than the "elaborated code" used in schools and by middle-class families.
Anti-school attitudes can vary significantly between different ethnic groups, challenging simple class-based explanations.
Sewell studied Black Caribbean boys in an inner-city school and found some developed an anti-school subculture based on "hyper-masculinity" - rejecting academic work as "feminine" and adopting a tough, rebellious stance. However, he also found many Black students who were pro-education but anti-school - they valued learning but resisted what they saw as racist treatment.
Mary Fuller studied a group of Black girls who appeared anti-school in their behaviour (being disruptive, challenging teachers) but were secretly committed to academic success. They developed a "subculture of resistance" that allowed them to maintain their cultural identity while still achieving academically.
Traditionally, anti-school subcultures were seen as primarily male phenomena, with boys more likely to openly resist school authority. However, more recent research shows girls can also form anti-school subcultures, though these may take different forms.
Often more visible and disruptive:
May be less visible but still significant:
Máirtín Mac an Ghaill identified different male subcultures in schools:
This shows not all boys reject education - there are multiple responses to schooling even within gender groups.
Today's anti-school subcultures may look different from those in Willis's day. Factory jobs have declined and digital technology has created new ways for students to express resistance.
Modern forms of resistance might include:
Anti-school subcultures can affect educational outcomes by:
Schools and teachers have developed various strategies to address anti-school attitudes:
Are anti-school subcultures simply "bad behaviour" or rational responses to an education system that doesn't meet some students' needs? Could schools change to better engage these students, or should students adapt to school expectations?