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Unlock This CourseHave you ever wondered why some people turn to crime while others don't? American sociologist Robert K. Merton developed Strain Theory in 1938 to explain how social pressure can push people towards criminal behaviour. His theory helps us understand how society itself might actually create the conditions that lead to crime and deviance.
Key Definitions:
Merton was fascinated by the "American Dream" - the idea that anyone could achieve success through hard work. But he noticed something important: while society tells everyone to aim for success (like wealth and status), not everyone has the same opportunities to achieve these goals through legitimate means. This gap between cultural goals and the means to achieve them creates "strain" that can lead to deviance.
Merton's theory can be simplified as:
Cultural goals + Limited legitimate means = Social strain
When people face this strain, they must adapt somehow. Some follow the rules despite limitations, while others may turn to crime or reject society's goals entirely.
Merton identified five different ways people respond to the strain between cultural goals (like wealth and success) and the legitimate means to achieve them (like education and jobs). Each response represents a different relationship to society's goals and the approved ways to reach them.
Accepts goals and means
Most people are conformists who accept society's goals (like getting wealthy) and try to achieve them through approved means (like working hard at school and getting a good job). This is the most common response and helps maintain social stability.
Accepts goals, rejects means
Innovators want society's rewards but lack legitimate ways to get them, so they "innovate" by finding alternative (often illegal) methods. Examples include drug dealing, theft, or fraud to get money when legitimate jobs seem out of reach.
Rejects goals, accepts means
Ritualists give up on big dreams of success but still follow the rules. They might work in jobs with little chance of promotion but follow all workplace rules perfectly. They've lowered their aspirations but stick to approved behaviours.
Rejects both goals and means
Retreatists withdraw from society altogether, rejecting both its goals and means. This might include people who drop out of mainstream society, such as long-term homeless people, drug addicts who have given up on conventional success, or those who live off-grid by choice.
Replaces goals and means
Rebels reject society's goals and means but actively work to replace them with new ones. Political activists, revolutionaries and those who form counter-cultural movements fit this category. They don't just reject the system but want to create a new one.
Strain theory helps explain why crime rates are often higher in deprived areas. When legitimate opportunities for success (good schools, decent jobs) are limited, but people are still bombarded with images of wealth and success in the media, the strain can push some towards criminal "innovation" as a solution.
Consider a deprived urban area where young people have limited access to good education and face high unemployment. They're constantly exposed to adverts showing expensive trainers, smartphones and designer clothes as symbols of success. With few legitimate ways to afford these items, some turn to shoplifting or selling drugs. This perfectly illustrates Merton's "innovation" response - accepting society's materialistic goals but using illegitimate means to achieve them when legitimate paths seem blocked.
Merton's ideas have been developed by later sociologists. Robert Agnew's "General Strain Theory" expanded Merton's work to include more types of strain beyond just the gap between goals and means. Agnew suggested that strain can also come from:
Think about social media influencers showing off luxury lifestyles that seem achievable to everyone. When young people compare their lives to these seemingly perfect online personas, they may feel strain between what they want and what they can actually achieve. This modern form of strain might help explain certain types of online fraud, identity theft, or even social media addiction as people try to bridge this gap.
Merton's Strain Theory is a powerful reminder that crime and deviance aren't simply the result of "bad people" making "bad choices." Instead, they can be understood as predictable responses to structural problems in society. When we create a culture that promotes certain goals (like wealth and status) but doesn't provide equal opportunities to achieve those goals legitimately, we're essentially setting up conditions that make deviance more likely.
This perspective challenges us to look beyond punishing individuals and consider how changing social structures might be more effective in reducing crime. By creating more equal opportunities and addressing inequality, we might reduce the strain that pushes people towards deviance in the first place.
In your exam, you might be asked to apply strain theory to explain patterns of crime. Remember to discuss how the gap between cultural goals and legitimate means creates pressure that can lead to different adaptations. Use specific examples to show your understanding and don't forget to evaluate the theory by discussing both its strengths and limitations.
Look around your own community. Can you identify examples of strain? Are there goals that everyone is encouraged to pursue but that some people have much better chances of achieving than others? How might this create conditions for different types of deviance? What changes might reduce this strain?