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Unlock This CourseWhen society tells us to achieve certain goals but doesn't give everyone the same opportunities to reach them, people adapt in different ways. American sociologist Robert K. Merton called this disconnect "strain" and developed a theory in 1938 that helps explain why some people turn to crime and deviance.
Key Definitions:
Merton developed his theory while observing American society, where the "American Dream" promised that anyone could achieve success through hard work. However, he noticed that structural inequalities meant many people couldn't access the legitimate means to achieve these goals, creating strain and leading to different adaptations.
Merton identified five ways people respond when faced with the gap between cultural goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. Each adaptation represents a different relationship to both the goals society promotes and the acceptable ways to reach them.
Accepts cultural goals ✓
Accepts institutionalised means ✓
Most people in society are conformists. They accept both society's goals (like financial success) and the legitimate ways to achieve them (like education and hard work).
Example: A student who wants to become wealthy, so studies hard at school, goes to university and works their way up in a company.
Accepts cultural goals ✓
Rejects institutionalised means ✗
Innovators accept society's goals but reject or lack access to legitimate means. They find alternative (often illegal) ways to achieve success.
Example: A person who wants wealth but can't access good education or jobs might turn to drug dealing, theft, or fraud.
Rejects cultural goals ✗
Accepts institutionalised means ✓
Ritualists give up on achieving big goals but still follow the rules. They lower their aspirations but stick to socially approved behaviour.
Example: A civil servant who has given up on promotion but follows all workplace procedures meticulously.
Rejects cultural goals ✗
Rejects institutionalised means ✗
Retreatists reject both society's goals and the legitimate means. They essentially drop out of conventional society altogether.
Example: People with long-term drug addictions, homeless individuals who have given up on mainstream society, or hermits who live isolated lives.
Replaces cultural goals ↺
Replaces institutionalised means ↺
Rebels reject both the goals and means of society but actively work to replace them with new values and systems.
Example: Political activists, revolutionaries, or members of alternative communities who create their own value systems.
Merton's theory helps explain why crime and deviance occur in societies with high levels of inequality. When legitimate opportunities are blocked for certain groups, they may turn to alternative adaptations:
Innovation is the adaptation most clearly linked to criminal behaviour. When people want what society tells them to want (money, status, possessions) but can't get these things through legitimate means, they may turn to crime.
In areas with high unemployment and limited educational opportunities, young people may turn to drug dealing or theft as a way to achieve financial success. A study of gang members in London found many described their criminal activities as "just business" - a way to achieve financial goals when legitimate paths seemed closed to them.
Retreatism often manifests as behaviour society labels as deviant rather than criminal - such as addiction, homelessness, or withdrawal from social participation.
Retreatists have often tried to succeed through legitimate means, failed and then given up on both the goals and the means. This can lead to substance abuse as a way to cope with perceived failure.
Rebellion can lead to what might be called "political crime" - actions that break laws in order to challenge the existing social order. This might include protest activities, civil disobedience, or in extreme cases, terrorism.
Unlike retreatists, rebels actively work to create alternative social structures and value systems.
Merton's theory remains relevant today, particularly in societies with high inequality. Social media has intensified the visibility of wealth and success, potentially increasing strain as people compare themselves to idealised lifestyles they see online.
Research suggests that young people who spend more time on social media platforms like Instagram may experience greater feelings of relative deprivation as they compare their lives to the curated, often luxurious lifestyles they see online. This could potentially increase strain and the likelihood of innovation (finding alternative means to achieve visible success) or retreatism (withdrawing from these comparisons altogether).
Understanding Merton's adaptations helps us see crime and deviance not just as individual moral failings, but as predictable responses to structural conditions in society. This perspective is crucial for developing effective social policies that address the root causes of crime rather than just punishing individuals.