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Unlock This CourseÉmile Durkheim (1858-1917) was one of the founding fathers of sociology who helped establish it as a distinct academic discipline. Born in France, he was the first person to hold a professorship in sociology. Durkheim was concerned with how societies maintain their stability and how they change over time, especially during the rapid industrialisation of the 19th century.
Key Definitions:
Durkheim lived during a period of significant social change in France. The country was transitioning from a traditional, rural society to an industrial, urban one. This context deeply influenced his thinking about social order and stability. He was also Jewish in a predominantly Catholic country, which may have shaped his interest in outsider perspectives and religious studies.
Durkheim wanted to establish sociology as a respected scientific discipline. He believed social phenomena should be studied as "things" that can be measured objectively. His goal was to identify the "social glue" that holds societies together despite the increasing individualism brought by industrialisation and modernisation.
For Durkheim, sociology's main subject of study was "social facts" - forces that exist outside individuals but shape how they think and behave. These include laws, morals, beliefs, customs and even fashion trends. Social facts have three key characteristics:
They exist outside of individuals and are not created by any single person.
They exert pressure on individuals to conform, often through sanctions.
They are widespread throughout society rather than limited to specific individuals.
For example, language is a social fact. You didn't invent the language you speak - it existed before you were born. You feel pressure to use it correctly (constraint) and it's used by everyone in your society (general).
One of Durkheim's most important contributions was his analysis of how societies maintain cohesion. He identified two main types of social solidarity:
Found in: Traditional, pre-industrial societies
Based on: Similarity and shared beliefs
Features:
Example: Small farming villages where everyone knows each other and follows the same traditions
Found in: Modern, industrial societies
Based on: Interdependence through division of labour
Features:
Example: Modern cities where people rely on others' specialised skills (doctors, plumbers, teachers, etc.)
Durkheim was concerned about what happens when social norms break down. He called this state "anomie" - a sense of normlessness or lack of clear social rules. Anomie occurs during periods of rapid social change when old norms no longer apply but new ones haven't yet been established.
The economic crash of 1929 created widespread anomie. People who had built their lives around certain expectations (job security, stable income) suddenly found these expectations shattered. The resulting confusion and lack of clear norms contributed to increased rates of suicide and crime. This illustrates Durkheim's point that social disruption can lead to anomie and various forms of deviant behaviour.
Modern examples of anomie might include:
In his groundbreaking work "Suicide" (1897), Durkheim demonstrated how even seemingly individual acts like suicide could be explained sociologically. By analysing suicide statistics across different countries and social groups, he identified social patterns that couldn't be explained by individual psychology alone.
Durkheim identified four types of suicide, each related to different social conditions:
Results from too little social integration. When people feel disconnected from society, they may lack the social support needed during difficult times.
Example: Durkheim found higher suicide rates among Protestants than Catholics, which he attributed to Protestantism's emphasis on individual interpretation rather than communal religious practice.
Results from too much social integration. When individuals are so deeply integrated into a group that they sacrifice themselves for the group's benefit.
Example: Military personnel sacrificing themselves for their unit or country, or historical practices like sati (widow suicide) in some cultures.
Results from a lack of social regulation during times of social upheaval. When norms break down, people lose their sense of purpose and direction.
Example: Increased suicide rates during economic booms and busts, when social expectations rapidly change.
Results from excessive regulation and oppression. When people feel their futures are hopelessly blocked by oppressive discipline.
Example: Suicides among slaves or prisoners facing lifelong confinement with no hope of freedom.
In "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" (1912), Durkheim studied religion not from a theological perspective but as a social institution. He argued that religion serves important social functions regardless of whether its beliefs are "true".
For Durkheim, religion:
Durkheim studied Australian Aboriginal totemism, where clans identify with a particular animal or plant (totem). He argued that when tribe members worship their totem, they're actually worshipping their own society in disguised form. The totem represents the collective power of the group itself. This shows how religion can function as a way for society to worship itself and reinforce group identity.
Durkheim saw education as crucial for transmitting society's norms and values to new generations. For him, schools don't just teach academic subjects - they teach children how to be members of society.
According to Durkheim, education:
Durkheim's ideas remain relevant for understanding contemporary social issues:
The COVID-19 pandemic provides a perfect case study for Durkheim's theories. The sudden disruption to normal routines created widespread anomie. However, new forms of solidarity emerged through shared experiences and collective actions like clapping for healthcare workers. The pandemic also highlighted our organic interdependence - we suddenly became aware of how much we rely on essential workers like delivery drivers, grocery store staff and healthcare professionals.
Émile Durkheim provided sociology with some of its most fundamental concepts. His focus on social facts, solidarity and the role of institutions like religion and education continues to influence how sociologists understand society. While some aspects of his work have been criticised, his core insight - that human behaviour cannot be understood without considering the social context - remains central to sociology today.