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Unlock This CourseStructural theories look at how society itself creates conditions that lead to crime and deviance. Unlike theories that focus on individual choices, structural theories examine how social forces like poverty, inequality and power imbalances influence criminal behaviour. These theories suggest that to understand crime, we need to look at the bigger picture of how society is organised.
Key Definitions:
Structural theories help us understand why crime rates differ between different areas and social groups. They explain why some neighbourhoods have higher crime rates than others and why certain groups might be more likely to commit certain types of crime. These theories suggest that to reduce crime, we need to address underlying social problems like inequality and lack of opportunity.
While individual theories focus on personal choices, psychology or biology, structural theories look at the social environment. They don't ask "what's wrong with the criminal?" but instead ask "what's wrong with society that creates crime?" This shift in focus has major implications for how we might try to prevent crime.
Marxist theories see crime as a product of capitalism and class inequality. They argue that the economic system creates conditions that lead to criminal behaviour and shapes how laws are made and enforced.
Karl Marx didn't write much specifically about crime, but later Marxist thinkers developed theories based on his ideas about capitalism and class conflict. These theories suggest that:
The competitive, profit-driven nature of capitalism encourages selfishness and greed. People learn that success means having material wealth, but not everyone has fair access to legitimate ways of achieving this.
Laws are created by the ruling class to protect their interests. Activities that threaten the wealth and power of the elite are criminalised, while harmful actions by the powerful (like exploitation) often aren't illegal.
The criminal justice system focuses more on crimes typically committed by working-class people (like theft) than on crimes committed by the wealthy (like tax evasion or corporate fraud).
The 2008 financial crisis was caused partly by risky and sometimes fraudulent practices in the banking industry. Despite the enormous harm caused (millions lost their homes and jobs), very few bankers faced criminal charges. Marxists would argue this shows how the law protects powerful interests. While someone stealing £100 might go to prison, bankers who caused billions in damages often faced only fines or no consequences at all.
Functionalist theories see society as a system of interconnected parts working together. From this perspective, crime and deviance, surprisingly, can serve useful functions for society.
Émile Durkheim, a founding figure in sociology, argued that crime is normal and even necessary in society. His key ideas include:
Durkheim believed crime only becomes problematic when rates are unusually high, which he linked to a state he called "anomie" – when society's norms break down during periods of rapid social change.
Robert Merton developed strain theory to explain why crime rates are higher in some parts of society than others. He argued that crime results from a gap between culturally approved goals (like material success) and the limited legitimate means available to achieve them.
When people can't achieve success through approved channels like education and jobs, they may respond in different ways:
Accepting society's goals but using illegitimate means to achieve them – like selling drugs to get money.
Rejecting both goals and means – like dropping out of society through drug addiction or homelessness.
Rejecting existing goals and means and trying to create new ones – like political activism against capitalism.
Giving up on success but still following the rules – like working in a dead-end job without hope of advancement.
In many UK cities, gang involvement is highest in areas with limited economic opportunities. Using Merton's theory, we can see gang membership as "innovation" – young people accept the goal of material success but use illegitimate means (like drug dealing) to achieve it when legitimate paths seem blocked. A 2019 study in Glasgow found that areas with the highest youth unemployment also had the highest rates of gang activity.
Key idea: Crime results from capitalism and class inequality.
View of law: Laws protect the powerful and control the working class.
Solution to crime: Fundamental change to economic system.
Key idea: Crime serves functions in society and results from strain between goals and means.
View of law: Laws reflect collective values and maintain social order.
Solution to crime: Better balance between cultural goals and available opportunities.
Structural theories remain relevant for understanding contemporary crime issues:
When writing about structural theories in exams, make sure to: