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Unlock This CourseSubcultural theories help us understand why some groups develop norms and values that differ from mainstream society. These theories are particularly useful in explaining why crime and deviance are more common in certain social groups, especially among working-class young males.
Key Definitions:
Subcultures often develop as a response to problems faced by certain groups in society. When people struggle to achieve success through legitimate means, they may form or join subcultures that offer alternative ways to gain respect, status and a sense of belonging.
What counts as 'criminal' or 'deviant' is socially constructed and varies between cultures and over time. Subcultural theories help explain how certain behaviours become normalised within specific groups even when the wider society considers them deviant.
Albert Cohen (1955) developed one of the most influential subcultural theories. He focused on why working-class boys often reject mainstream values and form delinquent subcultures.
According to Cohen, working-class boys experience 'status frustration' when they're judged against middle-class standards in school but lack the resources to succeed. This leads to a collective solution:
Working-class boys face failure in a middle-class education system that values qualities they haven't been socialised into.
They experience status frustration and rejection of the system that labels them as failures.
They form delinquent subcultures with inverted values that reject and oppose mainstream norms.
Cohen described how working-class boys face a choice between trying to be a 'college boy' (adopting middle-class values and likely failing) or becoming a 'corner boy' (rejecting those values and finding status in a delinquent subculture). The 'corner boy' option provides immediate status among peers through activities like vandalism, theft and truancy - behaviours that deliberately invert middle-class values of property respect, honesty and educational achievement.
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) built on Cohen's work but argued that different types of delinquent subcultures emerge depending on what illegitimate opportunities are available in different neighbourhoods.
Forms in stable areas with organised adult crime. Young people can learn criminal skills and have career paths in crime. Focus: theft, extortion, fraud.
Emerges in unstable areas with few legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. Status comes through violence and gang warfare. Focus: fighting, territory, reputation.
Consists of 'double failures' who can't succeed in either legitimate society or criminal subcultures. Focus: drug use, alcohol abuse, dropping out.
Unlike Cohen, Miller (1958) didn't see delinquent subcultures as a reaction against middle-class values. Instead, he argued that working-class culture itself contains certain 'focal concerns' that can lead to criminal behaviour when taken to extremes.
Miller identified six key values in working-class culture that can unintentionally promote delinquency:
Football hooliganism in the UK can be understood through subcultural theories. These groups develop their own norms and values, with status gained through fighting rival fans. They display Miller's focal concerns like toughness and excitement, while also showing Cohen's status frustration as members often seek alternative sources of status they can't achieve through conventional means. The territorial nature of many hooligan groups also reflects Cloward and Ohlin's conflict subculture.
While the original theories were developed decades ago, they remain relevant for understanding contemporary issues:
Online communities can form subcultures with their own norms and values. Some internet subcultures engage in deviant behaviours like trolling, cyberbullying, or hacking. Status within these groups often comes from activities that mainstream society condemns.
Media often portrays subcultural groups in ways that reinforce stereotypes and moral panics. This can lead to labelling and further marginalisation of these groups, potentially strengthening their opposition to mainstream values.
Understanding subcultural theories helps youth workers develop effective interventions. Rather than simply trying to suppress deviant behaviour, successful programmes often provide alternative ways for young people to achieve status and belonging. This might include sports programmes, creative arts projects, or vocational training that gives young people legitimate routes to success and recognition.
Subcultural theories provide valuable insights into why certain groups develop norms and values that differ from mainstream society. While they have limitations, these theories help us understand that deviance isn't simply about individual moral failings but is often a response to structural inequalities and limited opportunities.
The key takeaway is that crime and deviance can be understood as socially constructed phenomena that emerge from specific social contexts. By addressing underlying issues of inequality, education and opportunity, society might reduce the conditions that lead to the formation of deviant subcultures.