Sign up to access the complete lesson and track your progress!
Unlock This CourseInteractionist theory offers a fascinating lens through which to understand crime and deviance. Unlike theories that focus on wider social structures or individual psychology, interactionism looks at how people interact with each other and how meanings are created through these interactions. For interactionists, crime and deviance aren't fixed categories but are socially constructed through everyday interactions and the labels we give to certain behaviours.
Key Definitions:
Labelling theory, developed by Howard Becker, suggests that deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of others applying rules and sanctions. When someone is labelled as "criminal" or "deviant," this can change how society views them and how they view themselves. The label becomes part of their identity, potentially leading to further deviant behaviour.
When someone is labelled as deviant, they may begin to see themselves through that label and act accordingly. For example, if a young person is repeatedly told they're a "troublemaker," they might start to believe it and behave in ways that confirm this label. This process, where the label leads to the very behaviour it describes, is called a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Edwin Lemert made an important distinction between two types of deviance that helps us understand how labelling affects people's behaviour and identity:
This refers to the initial act of rule-breaking, which might happen for many reasons (curiosity, peer pressure, etc.). At this stage, the person doesn't see themselves as deviant - it's just something they did, not who they are. For example, a teenager might shoplift once without considering themselves a "thief".
This occurs when a person begins to accept and live according to the deviant label given to them. The label becomes part of their self-identity and they may join deviant subcultures and continue deviant behaviour. For instance, after being caught shoplifting and being labelled a "thief," a teenager might start seeing themselves that way and continue stealing.
Interactionists argue that what counts as "crime" or "deviance" isn't fixed or natural but is created through social processes. Different societies, cultures and even different groups within the same society may have different ideas about what behaviours are acceptable or unacceptable.
What's illegal today might not have been in the past and vice versa. For example, homosexuality was once criminalised in the UK but is now legal, showing how definitions of crime change over time.
What's considered deviant varies across cultures. In some countries, drinking alcohol is normal; in others, it's forbidden. These differences show that deviance isn't inherent in behaviours but depends on social context.
Those with power often define what counts as deviant. Laws and norms may reflect the interests of powerful groups rather than objective standards of right and wrong.
Interactionists pay special attention to how agents of social control (like police, teachers and media) apply labels to individuals and groups. These agents have the power to define situations and behaviours as deviant or criminal.
Police officers make decisions about who to stop, search and arrest. These decisions aren't always based purely on behaviour but can be influenced by stereotypes about certain groups. For example, studies have shown that young Black men are more likely to be stopped and searched than other groups, even when their behaviour is the same.
The media plays a huge role in creating and reinforcing labels. How certain groups or behaviours are portrayed in news and entertainment can shape public perceptions of what's deviant. For instance, media coverage of youth crime can create moral panics and reinforce negative stereotypes about young people.
In his famous study "Folk Devils and Moral Panics" (1972), Stanley Cohen examined how the media portrayed conflicts between mods and rockers in British seaside towns in the 1960s. Cohen showed how the media exaggerated and sensationalised these events, creating a "moral panic" about youth deviance. The media labelled these young people as "folk devils" - threats to social values and interests. This labelling led to increased policing and harsher treatment of young people identified as mods or rockers, which in turn reinforced their deviant identities. Cohen's study is a classic example of how deviance is socially constructed through labelling and media representation.
While interactionist theory provides valuable insights into how crime and deviance are socially constructed, it has been criticised in several ways:
Let's look at how interactionist theory can help us understand deviance in schools:
Research by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) showed that teacher expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies. When teachers expected certain students to perform well, those students did better, regardless of their actual ability. Similarly, students labelled as "troublemakers" or "low achievers" may internalise these labels and act accordingly.
Placing students in different ability groups can create labels that affect their self-perception and behaviour. Students in "lower" sets might be labelled as less capable, leading them to disengage from education and potentially engage in deviant behaviour as an alternative way to gain status among peers.
Consider how young people who commit minor offences may be drawn into the criminal justice system and labelled as "young offenders." This label can affect how they're treated by police, teachers and potential employers. It may also change how they see themselves, potentially leading to a criminal identity and further offending. This is why many youth justice approaches now focus on restorative justice and diversion from formal processing - to avoid the negative effects of labelling. The Youth Justice Board in England and Wales has implemented various programmes aimed at preventing young people from being unnecessarily criminalised for minor offences, recognising the potential harm of criminal labels.
Interactionist theory reminds us that crime and deviance aren't simply objective categories but are socially constructed through interactions, labelling and power dynamics. By understanding how labels are applied and how they affect people's identities and behaviour, we can develop more effective and compassionate approaches to addressing behaviour that society defines as problematic.
The theory encourages us to question who has the power to define certain behaviours as deviant, whose interests these definitions serve and how labelling processes might contribute to continued deviance rather than reducing it. These insights are valuable for anyone interested in understanding and addressing social problems, from teachers and social workers to police officers and policy makers.