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Unlock This CourseKarl Marx (1818-1883) was one of the most influential thinkers in history. His ideas about society, economics and politics have shaped the modern world in countless ways. Born in Germany, Marx spent much of his life in exile in London where he wrote his most famous works, including "The Communist Manifesto" (with Friedrich Engels) and "Capital."
Key Definitions:
Marx lived during the Industrial Revolution, a time of massive social change. He witnessed the harsh working conditions in factories, extreme poverty alongside growing wealth and the development of a new urban working class. These observations deeply influenced his thinking about how society works and changes over time.
Unlike many philosophers before him, Marx focused on material conditions rather than abstract ideas. He believed that to understand society, we must look at how people produce the things they need to survive and the economic relationships this creates. This approach is known as "historical materialism."
Marx believed that human society develops through different economic stages based on how production is organised. He argued that history moves forward through class conflict, with each new economic system emerging from the contradictions of the previous one.
According to Marx, society has progressed through several stages, each with its own economic system and class relationships:
Early human societies with no private property or class divisions. Resources were shared communally.
Based on slavery, with a clear division between slave owners and slaves.
Medieval system where lords owned land and peasants (serfs) worked it in exchange for protection.
Our current system, where the means of production are privately owned and workers sell their labour for wages. The key conflict is between capitalists (bourgeoisie) who own factories, land, etc. and workers (proletariat) who must work for them to survive.
The future system Marx predicted, where workers would overthrow capitalism, establish common ownership of the means of production and eventually create a classless society.
One of Marx's most famous statements is "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." He believed that in every society (except primitive communism), there are two main classes: those who own the means of production and those who don't.
The capitalist class who own the factories, land and other means of production. They make their money by exploiting the labour of workers. Though small in number, they hold most of the power and wealth in society.
The working class who own nothing but their ability to work. They must sell their labour to the bourgeoisie to survive. Marx believed they were exploited because they produced more value than they received in wages.
For Marx, social change happens when the oppressed class becomes aware of its shared interests and organises to fight for them. He called this "class consciousness" – when workers stop seeing themselves as individuals competing for jobs and start seeing themselves as a class with common interests against their employers.
In 19th century Britain, factory workers often worked 14-16 hour days in dangerous conditions. Children as young as 5 worked in coal mines and textile mills. Marx observed how this system concentrated wealth in the hands of factory owners while workers lived in slums and poverty. These observations formed the basis of his critique of capitalism as an exploitative system.
Marx didn't just describe capitalism – he offered a powerful critique of it. He identified several key problems with the capitalist system:
Marx argued that capitalism is built on the exploitation of workers. The value of goods comes from the labour that produces them, but workers only receive a fraction of this value as wages. The rest (surplus value) goes to the capitalist as profit.
Under capitalism, Marx believed workers become alienated (disconnected) in four main ways:
Workers have no control over what they produce or how they produce it. Work becomes a boring, repetitive activity rather than a creative expression.
Workers create products that are taken from them and sold. They may not even be able to afford what they make.
Capitalism forces people to compete rather than cooperate, damaging human relationships and community.
Workers can't develop their full human capabilities because they're trapped in unfulfilling work just to survive.
One of Marx's key ideas is that the economic system (the base) shapes everything else in society (the superstructure). This helps explain why certain ideas, laws and institutions exist in different societies.
The economic foundation of society – how things are produced, who owns what and the relationships between different economic classes.
Everything built on top of the economic base: government, laws, religion, education, media, art, family structures and dominant ideas.
According to Marx, the superstructure generally serves the interests of the ruling class. For example, in capitalism, schools might emphasise skills needed by employers, laws protect private property and popular ideas about "working hard to get ahead" justify inequality.
Marx predicted that capitalism would eventually collapse due to its own internal contradictions. He believed several factors would lead to this:
Eventually, Marx thought the working class would overthrow capitalism through revolution. After the revolution, society would transition through socialism (where the state would represent workers' interests) to communism (a classless society with no state, no private property and distribution according to need).
In 1917, revolutionaries inspired by Marx's ideas overthrew the Russian Tsar and eventually established the Soviet Union. While they claimed to be creating a socialist society, many scholars argue that the Soviet system didn't truly follow Marx's vision. The Soviet Union became authoritarian under Stalin, with power concentrated in the hands of party officials rather than ordinary workers. This raises important questions about how Marx's ideas translate into practice.
Although Marx was writing in the 19th century, many of his ideas remain relevant for understanding today's world:
Wealth inequality has reached extreme levels globally, with the richest 1% owning more than the bottom 50% of the world's population.
Marx predicted capitalism would become a global system, with companies seeking cheaper labour around the world.
Marx's ideas about how dominant ideas reflect ruling class interests can help us think critically about media ownership and representation.
While Marx provided powerful insights, his theories have limitations:
Whether you agree with Marx or not, his ideas have profoundly shaped our understanding of society, economics and politics. By learning about his theories, you gain valuable tools for thinking critically about the world around you.