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examBoard: Cambridge
examType: IGCSE
lessonTitle: Fracking: Processes and Impacts
Hydraulic fracturing, commonly known as "fracking", is a technique used to extract oil and natural gas from deep rock formations. It involves drilling down into the earth and injecting a high-pressure mixture of water, sand and chemicals to crack open rock layers and release the trapped fossil fuels inside.
Key Definitions:
Fracking has revolutionised energy production in some countries, particularly the USA. It allows access to previously unreachable fossil fuel reserves and has changed global energy markets. Many countries are exploring fracking as a way to reduce dependence on imported energy and to transition away from coal while renewable energy technologies develop.
Fracking has sparked intense debate worldwide. While some see it as an economic opportunity and a "bridge fuel" to a renewable future, others worry about its environmental impacts. Countries like France and Bulgaria have banned fracking, while the UK, USA and Canada have allowed it with varying levels of regulation.
Fracking involves several key stages, from initial exploration to gas production and site restoration. Understanding this process helps explain both its economic appeal and environmental concerns.
The fracking process begins with drilling a well vertically down to the shale rock layer, typically 1-3 kilometres below the surface. The well then turns horizontally to follow the shale layer for up to 3 kilometres. A perforating gun creates small holes in the well casing and then the fracking fluid is pumped in at extremely high pressure.
Geologists use seismic surveys to locate suitable shale formations. Test drilling confirms if gas is present in commercially viable amounts.
A well is drilled vertically then horizontally into the shale layer. Multiple layers of steel casing and cement are installed to prevent leakage.
Fracking fluid (99.5% water and sand, 0.5% chemicals) is pumped at high pressure to create tiny cracks in the rock, releasing trapped gas.
Gas flows through the fractures into the well and up to the surface. A typical well produces for 20-40 years with declining output over time.
Some of the fracking fluid returns to the surface as "flowback" and must be treated or disposed of safely in deep injection wells.
Once production ends, wells are sealed with cement plugs and the site is restored to its previous condition or repurposed.
Fracking has several potential environmental impacts that have made it controversial. These range from water contamination to air pollution and seismic activity.
Water usage: A single fracking operation can use 8-13 million litres of water – enough to fill 5 Olympic swimming pools. This can strain local water supplies, especially in water-stressed areas.
Contamination risks: There are concerns about potential leakage of fracking fluids or methane into groundwater through faulty well casings or natural faults. The chemicals in fracking fluid, though a small percentage, include some potentially harmful substances.
Wastewater management: The flowback water contains not only the original chemicals but also naturally occurring radioactive materials and heavy metals from deep underground. Proper treatment is essential but challenging.
Methane leakage: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas (25-86 times more powerful than CO₂ depending on the timeframe). Leaks during extraction and transportation can offset the climate benefits of natural gas compared to coal.
Local air pollution: Fracking operations release nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter, which can affect local air quality and health.
Flaring: When infrastructure isn't available to capture all the gas, excess gas is often burned off (flared), creating both air pollution and wasting energy.
Fracking itself rarely causes significant earthquakes, but the disposal of wastewater in deep injection wells has been linked to increased seismic activity in some regions. In the UK, fracking operations near Blackpool caused small earthquakes in 2011 and 2019, leading to temporary and then permanent suspensions of fracking.
Fracking requires clearing land for well pads, access roads, pipelines and processing facilities. Each well pad typically occupies 1.5-2 hectares. While this is smaller than other mining operations, the cumulative impact of multiple wells can fragment habitats and disrupt wildlife. Noise and light pollution from 24/7 operations can also affect local ecosystems.
Fracking has complex social and economic effects that vary widely between regions and communities.
Job creation: Fracking creates direct jobs in drilling and support services, plus indirect jobs in local businesses.
Energy security: Domestic gas production reduces dependence on imported energy.
Lower energy prices: The US "shale gas revolution" significantly reduced natural gas prices, benefiting consumers and industries.
Tax revenue: Governments collect taxes and royalties from fracking operations.
Property values: Studies show mixed effects, with some areas seeing decreased property values near well sites.
Infrastructure strain: Rural communities may struggle with increased traffic, housing demand and pressure on public services.
Community division: Fracking often creates tensions between those who benefit economically and those concerned about environmental impacts.
Health concerns: Some residents near fracking sites report health issues like headaches, respiratory problems and stress.
The UK has a complex history with fracking. Initial exploration began in 2011 but was quickly halted when Cuadrilla's operations near Blackpool caused small earthquakes. After implementing stricter regulations, limited exploration resumed in 2018. However, operations at Preston New Road in Lancashire triggered more seismic events, including a magnitude 2.9 earthquake in August 2019.
In response, the UK government imposed a moratorium on fracking in England in November 2019. This was briefly lifted in September 2022 during the energy crisis but reinstated in October 2022. Scotland and Wales maintain their own bans on fracking.
The UK debate highlights the tension between potential economic benefits (reduced gas imports, jobs in former industrial areas) and environmental concerns (water usage in a densely populated country, seismic risks, climate commitments).
The United States experienced a dramatic transformation of its energy landscape through fracking. From 2005 to 2020, US natural gas production increased by over 80%, making the country the world's largest gas producer.
Economic impacts were significant: hundreds of thousands of jobs created, reduced energy costs for consumers and businesses and decreased coal use leading to lower carbon emissions from electricity generation. Some rural communities in Pennsylvania, Texas and North Dakota saw economic booms.
However, the rapid expansion also brought challenges: water contamination incidents, methane leaks, community disruption and boom-bust economic cycles in some regions. The regulatory response varied widely between states, with some implementing strict rules and others taking a more hands-off approach.
The US experience demonstrates both the potential benefits and the need for strong regulations to manage environmental and social impacts.
If fracking is to be conducted, several approaches can help minimise its negative impacts:
The debate around fracking ultimately comes down to balancing short-term energy needs with long-term environmental protection. As we transition to renewable energy, the role of natural gas as a "bridge fuel" remains contentious, with many environmental scientists arguing that new fossil fuel infrastructure locks in emissions for decades to come.
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