Agriculture Types » Subsistence vs Commercial Agriculture

What you'll learn this session

Study time: 30 minutes

The key differences between subsistence and commercial agriculture
Characteristics and types of subsistence farming systems
Features and examples of commercial agriculture
Environmental impacts of both farming systems
Case studies from different regions of the world
Sustainable approaches to both farming types

Introduction to Agricultural Systems

Agriculture is one of humanity's oldest and most important activities, providing food and resources for our survival. However, not all farming is done the same way or for the same reasons. The two main approaches to agriculture - subsistence and commercial - represent fundamentally different relationships between people, land and food production.

Key Definitions:

Agriculture: The practice of cultivating plants and rearing animals to produce food, fibre, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain human life.
Subsistence agriculture: Farming primarily to feed the farmer's own family or local community, with little or no surplus for trade.
Commercial agriculture: Farming to produce crops and livestock specifically for sale in markets, often on a large scale.

↻ Subsistence Agriculture

Farming where crops and livestock are produced primarily to feed the farmer's family or local community. Little or no surplus is produced for sale. Tools and methods are often traditional, labour-intensive and small-scale.

£ Commercial Agriculture

Farming where crops and livestock are produced primarily for sale in markets. Uses modern technology, requires significant capital investment and typically operates on a larger scale with a focus on profit and efficiency.

Subsistence Agriculture: Feeding Families

Subsistence agriculture remains vital for millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing countries. These farming systems have evolved over centuries to suit local conditions and needs.

Key Characteristics of Subsistence Farming

Small farm size: Typically 1-5 hectares, just enough to support a family
Labour-intensive: Relies on human and animal power rather than machinery
Low external inputs: Minimal use of purchased fertilisers, pesticides or improved seeds
Diverse crops: Growing multiple crops together to reduce risk and provide varied diet
Traditional knowledge: Farming practices passed down through generations
Limited market involvement: Primarily for household consumption, not for sale

Types of Subsistence Agriculture

↻ Shifting Cultivation

Also called 'slash and burn', involves clearing forest, burning vegetation, farming for 2-3 years, then moving to new area. The abandoned land regenerates over 10-20 years. Common in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and South America.

↔ Nomadic Herding

Moving livestock between seasonal grazing grounds. Herders follow traditional migration routes based on rainfall patterns. Common in arid and semi-arid regions like the Sahel in Africa and parts of Central Asia.

⊕ Intensive Subsistence

Permanent cultivation of small plots with high labour input. Often includes wet rice cultivation in Asia. Supports high population densities through careful management of limited land.

Case Study Focus: Shifting Cultivation in Papua New Guinea

In the highlands of Papua New Guinea, communities practice a form of shifting cultivation adapted to steep mountain slopes. Farmers clear small forest patches (typically 0.5-1 hectare) and plant mixed gardens with over 30 different crops including sweet potatoes, taro, bananas and vegetables. After 2-3 years, the plot is left to regrow while new areas are cleared. This system has been sustainable for thousands of years because population density remained low enough to allow forest regeneration. However, population growth is now putting pressure on this traditional system, shortening fallow periods and leading to soil degradation in some areas.

Commercial Agriculture: Farming as Business

Commercial agriculture emerged with industrialisation and now dominates food production in developed countries. It focuses on maximising output and profit through specialisation and technology.

Key Characteristics of Commercial Farming

Large farm size: Often hundreds or thousands of hectares
Capital-intensive: Heavy investment in machinery, buildings and inputs
High external inputs: Extensive use of fertilisers, pesticides, improved seeds
Specialisation: Focus on one or few crops or livestock types
Mechanisation: Use of tractors, harvesters and other machinery
Market-oriented: Production primarily for sale, not consumption
Wage labour: Employs farm workers rather than family labour

Types of Commercial Agriculture

⧉ Arable Farming

Growing crops like wheat, maize and soybeans on large fields. Highly mechanised with seasonal labour peaks. Common in temperate regions like the US Midwest, European plains and Australian wheatbelt.

∟ Plantation Agriculture

Large estates growing tropical or subtropical crops like tea, coffee, rubber, or palm oil. Often established during colonial era. Labour-intensive harvesting but processing may be mechanised. Common in parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America.

╢ Intensive Livestock

Factory farming of animals in confined conditions. Includes poultry, pig and cattle feedlots. Maximises production through controlled feeding and environment. Widespread in developed countries and increasingly in emerging economies.

Case Study Focus: Commercial Wheat Farming in East Anglia, UK

East Anglia is one of the UK's most productive arable farming regions. A typical commercial wheat farm might be 200-500 hectares, operated by a single farmer with seasonal workers and contractors. Modern GPS-guided tractors and combine harvesters allow precise operations with minimal labour. Farmers use scientific soil testing to determine exact fertiliser requirements and apply pesticides according to integrated pest management principles. Yields average 8-10 tonnes per hectare - among the highest in the world. Most farms are part of complex supply chains, selling grain to merchants who supply flour mills, animal feed manufacturers or export markets. Farmers manage price risks through futures contracts and diversify income through environmental schemes or renewable energy.

Environmental Impacts: A Tale of Two Systems

↻ Subsistence Agriculture Impacts

Positive: High biodiversity in traditional systems, low fossil fuel use, adapted to local conditions
Negative: Deforestation from shifting cultivation if fallow periods shorten, soil erosion on steep slopes, low productivity per hectare

£ Commercial Agriculture Impacts

Positive: High productivity per hectare and per worker, can use precision techniques to minimise inputs
Negative: Monocultures reduce biodiversity, high chemical inputs can pollute water, soil compaction from heavy machinery, high fossil fuel use

The Future: Sustainability in Both Systems

Both subsistence and commercial agriculture face challenges in becoming more sustainable. The goal isn't to choose one system over the other, but to improve practices in both.

Sustainable Approaches

For subsistence farmers: Agroforestry (combining trees with crops), improved varieties that maintain diversity, terracing to prevent erosion, water harvesting techniques
For commercial farmers: Precision agriculture to reduce inputs, cover crops to protect soil, integrated pest management to reduce pesticides, organic methods where viable

Bridging the Gap: Mixed Farming Systems

Many of the world's farmers don't fit neatly into either the subsistence or commercial category. Small-scale farmers who produce primarily for their families but sell surplus crops represent an important middle ground. These 'semi-subsistence' or 'semi-commercial' farmers often combine traditional knowledge with selective use of modern inputs. Development experts increasingly recognise that supporting these mixed systems - rather than pushing for complete commercialisation - may offer the most sustainable path forward in many regions. For example, in Kenya's highlands, smallholders growing maize and beans for family consumption alongside tea or dairy for cash income have proven remarkably resilient to economic and climate shocks.

Conclusion

The divide between subsistence and commercial agriculture reflects broader patterns of global development. While commercial systems dominate in wealthy countries and produce most of the world's traded food, subsistence farming remains crucial for food security in many developing regions. Understanding both systems - their characteristics, impacts and potential improvements - is essential for addressing the challenge of feeding a growing global population while protecting our environment.

As you've learned in this session, neither system is inherently "better" - each has evolved to meet different needs and operates within different economic contexts. The future of sustainable agriculture will likely involve learning from both traditions: the ecological knowledge embedded in many subsistence systems and the efficiency innovations of commercial farming.

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