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examBoard: Cambridge
examType: IGCSE
lessonTitle: Threats to Antarctica
Antarctica is our planet's southernmost continent, almost entirely covered by ice that averages 1.6 km thick. Despite being the coldest, driest and windiest continent, Antarctica supports a unique ecosystem adapted to extreme conditions.
Key Definitions:
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth with temperatures dropping to -89.2°C. It's also the driest continent, technically a polar desert with annual precipitation of only 200mm along the coast and far less inland. Despite these harsh conditions, Antarctica is home to diverse marine life including penguins, seals and whales, as well as various species of algae, bacteria and small invertebrates that have adapted to the extreme conditions.
Antarctica plays a crucial role in Earth's climate system. Its ice sheets contain about 90% of the world's fresh water. The white surface reflects solar radiation back into space, helping regulate global temperatures. The Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica absorbs vast amounts of carbon dioxide and heat from the atmosphere. Changes in Antarctica can have far-reaching effects on global sea levels, ocean circulation patterns and climate systems.
Despite its remote location and harsh conditions, Antarctica faces numerous threats from human activities and global environmental changes. These threats are particularly concerning because Antarctic ecosystems have evolved in isolation and are highly sensitive to disturbance.
Climate change represents the most significant long-term threat to Antarctica. The Antarctic Peninsula is one of the fastest-warming regions on Earth, with average temperatures rising by 3°C over the past 50 years – about five times the global average rate.
Rising temperatures are causing accelerated melting of ice shelves and glaciers. The Larsen Ice Shelf has experienced dramatic collapses, with Larsen B losing 3,250 km² in just 35 days in 2002. This ice loss contributes to rising sea levels globally.
Changing ice conditions affect breeding grounds for penguins and seals. Adélie penguin populations have declined by over 65% in some regions as sea ice retreats. Krill, the foundation of the Antarctic food web, depend on sea ice for their lifecycle.
The Southern Ocean is absorbing increasing amounts of COâ‚‚, becoming more acidic. This threatens marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells, including pteropods ("sea butterflies") that form a crucial part of the Antarctic food web.
Though Antarctica has no permanent human population, human activities have increased significantly in recent decades, bringing various environmental pressures.
Antarctic tourism has grown dramatically, from just a few hundred visitors in the 1980s to over 74,000 in the 2019-2020 season (pre-COVID). Tourist ships can introduce non-native species, disturb wildlife and risk fuel spills. Landing sites experience soil compaction and vegetation damage from foot traffic. However, tourism also creates environmental awareness and advocacy for Antarctic protection.
Approximately 70 research bases operate in Antarctica, housing up to 5,000 personnel in summer. These stations generate waste, consume energy and can contaminate local environments. Historical waste dumps and fuel spills have left pollution legacies. Modern stations are improving environmental practices, with better waste management and renewable energy use.
In 1985, scientists discovered a severe thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica – the "ozone hole." This was caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigerants and aerosols. The ozone layer protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The international community responded with the Montreal Protocol (1987), phasing out ozone-depleting substances. This represents one of the most successful international environmental agreements. The Antarctic ozone hole has begun to heal, showing how global cooperation can address environmental threats. Scientists expect the ozone layer to recover substantially by 2050-2070 if compliance continues.
While the Antarctic Treaty prohibits mining activities, potential future resource extraction remains a concern as global demand for minerals grows.
Antarctica is believed to contain significant deposits of coal, oil, natural gas and valuable minerals including iron, chromium, copper, gold and platinum. The Southern Ocean also has fish stocks that face pressure from commercial fishing. Krill harvesting has increased for use in aquaculture feed and nutritional supplements.
Despite its remoteness, Antarctica is not immune to pollution. Microplastics have been found in Antarctic waters and sea ice. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) reach Antarctica through atmospheric transport. Scientific stations have caused localised pollution through fuel spills, waste disposal and introduced non-native species. In 1989, the Argentine supply ship BahĂa ParaĂso ran aground, spilling 600,000 litres of diesel fuel.
Antarctica's protection relies on international agreements and cooperation, as no single nation owns the continent.
The cornerstone of Antarctic governance is the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 and entering into force in 1961. This remarkable agreement has evolved into the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), comprising multiple instruments addressing specific aspects of Antarctic management.
The original treaty suspended territorial claims, prohibited military activities, banned nuclear testing and established Antarctica as a zone for peaceful scientific research with international cooperation.
The Protocol on Environmental Protection (Madrid Protocol, 1991) designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science." It prohibits mineral resource activities except for scientific research and requires environmental impact assessments for all activities.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1982) manages fishing activities in the Southern Ocean using an ecosystem-based approach. It has established marine protected areas, including the Ross Sea region MPA, covering 1.55 million km².
The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) was founded in 1991 to advocate for safe and environmentally responsible travel to Antarctica. IAATO has developed guidelines including: limiting ships to one landing site at a time, maintaining minimum wildlife approach distances, limiting visitor numbers at sites, mandatory briefings on environmental protection, boot washing to prevent non-native species introduction and prohibition of souvenirs collection. While tourism continues to grow, this self-regulation has helped minimise impacts. For example, at Baily Head on Deception Island, a popular Chinstrap penguin colony site, IAATO established visitor pathways and limited numbers to prevent habitat degradation. However, challenges remain as visitor numbers increase and new activities like helicopter tours emerge.
Antarctica faces complex challenges that require ongoing international cooperation and scientific research to address effectively.
Understanding climate change impacts on Antarctic ecosystems remains a critical research priority. Scientists are monitoring ice sheet stability, ocean circulation changes and ecosystem responses. New technologies like remote sensing, autonomous underwater vehicles and genomic techniques are enhancing our ability to study this remote continent. Research stations are increasingly adopting renewable energy and improving waste management to reduce their environmental footprint.
The Antarctic Treaty System faces challenges from increasing human activities and geopolitical tensions. The mining ban under the Madrid Protocol could technically be reviewed after 2048. Growing interest in bioprospecting (searching for valuable biological compounds) raises questions about benefit-sharing. Climate change mitigation requires global action beyond Antarctic-specific agreements. Effective governance requires balancing scientific research needs, environmental protection and managing increasing human presence.
Antarctica represents one of Earth's last great wildernesses, with unique ecosystems adapted to extreme conditions. The continent faces significant threats from climate change, increasing human activities and potential resource exploitation. The Antarctic Treaty System provides a framework for international cooperation in protecting this valuable environment, but ongoing challenges require continued vigilance and adaptation of management approaches.
The fate of Antarctica is inextricably linked to global environmental issues, particularly climate change. Protecting this remarkable continent requires both specific Antarctic conservation measures and broader global environmental action. As an ecosystem of global importance, Antarctica's future depends on our collective commitment to environmental stewardship.
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