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Investigating Society » Observations

What you'll learn this session

Study time: 30 minutes

Cambridge spec: 1.3.3

What an observation is and the difference between participant and non-participant observation
The difference between overt and covert observation, and how the four types combine
The problems of getting in, staying in and getting out
The kind of data observation gives, and its strengths and limitations

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Watching people in action

Observation shows what people actually do, not just what they say they do - like how students really behave in the canteen

Questionnaires and interviews rely on what people say they do. An observation is different. The researcher watches what people actually do and records it. Imagine a researcher who wants to know how students behave in a school canteen. She could ask them, but she could also sit in the canteen and watch.

Observation is a primary research method, because the researcher collects the data first hand. It is mostly used by interpretivists, who want to understand behaviour as it happens in a natural setting.

Key terms:

Observation: a method where the researcher watches and records the behaviour of a group of people.
Participant observation: the researcher joins in with the group and takes part in its activities.
Non-participant observation: the researcher watches from the outside without taking part.
Overt observation: the group knows the researcher is a researcher.
Covert observation: the group does not know the researcher is a researcher.
Field notes: the written notes a researcher makes about what they see and hear.

Participant or non-participant?

A participant observer joins the group - like a researcher sitting with the fans at every match to see the world as they do

The first choice is how close to get.

🤝 Participant

The researcher becomes part of the group. A researcher studying a football supporters' club might join the club, go to matches and sit with the fans. They see the world as the members do.

👁 Non-participant

The researcher stays outside. A researcher might sit at the back of a classroom with a notepad, or watch a playground from a window, and take no part in what happens.

Overt or covert?

The second choice is whether the group knows. In overt observation the researcher is open about the research. In covert observation the researcher hides it and may pretend to be an ordinary member of the group.

The two choices can be combined, which gives four types:

Overt participant: the researcher joins the group, and everyone knows why they are there.
Covert participant: the researcher joins the group and pretends to be a genuine member.
Overt non-participant: the researcher openly watches from the outside, for example sitting at the back of a class after telling the students why she is there.
Covert non-participant: the researcher watches without being noticed, for example from a distance in a public place.

Getting in, staying in and getting out

Participant observation is a long process with three stages, and each has its own problems.

Getting in: the researcher must gain access to the group. Often a gatekeeper, a person who controls access such as a head teacher or a group leader, must agree. Some groups, for example a secretive club, may refuse.
Staying in: the researcher must win the trust of the group, which is called building rapport. They must fit in, and a covert researcher must also avoid being caught out. There is also a danger of going native: becoming so involved that the researcher loses their detachment and can no longer judge the group fairly.
Getting out: leaving can be hard after months or years of close friendships. A covert researcher must find a believable reason to leave. An overt researcher must decide how to say goodbye and whether to share the findings.

The kind of data observation gives

Observation mainly gives qualitative data. The researcher records rich description in field notes: what was said, what was done and what the atmosphere felt like. Non-participant observation can also give quantitative data. For example, the researcher can use a tally chart to count how many times students put their hand up in a lesson.

Strengths and limitations

✅ Strengths

It shows real behaviour, not what people say they do, so it is high in validity. It gives rich, detailed data and a deep understanding of the group. It can study people who cannot or will not answer questions, such as young children. A covert researcher avoids the Hawthorne effect, because nobody knows they are being watched.

❌ Limitations

It takes a lot of time, so only a small sample is studied and the results are hard to generalise. It is not reliable, because no other researcher can repeat it exactly. The researcher may be biased in what they notice. An overt researcher may cause the Hawthorne effect, and a covert researcher may face ethical problems and may be unable to take notes openly.

Comparing the four types

🤝 Participant

Strength: the researcher experiences what the group experiences, so the understanding is deep.

Limitation: the researcher may go native, lose objectivity, and affect the group's behaviour by joining in.

👁 Non-participant

Strength: the researcher stays detached, so it is easier to be objective and to take notes or count.

Limitation: the researcher is an outsider, so may misunderstand the meaning of what they see.

📢 Overt

Strength: it is honest, so the group can give consent, and the researcher can ask questions and take notes openly.

Limitation: people may act differently because they know they are being watched, and the group may refuse access.

🕵 Covert

Strength: people behave naturally and may allow access to groups that would normally refuse.

Limitation: it involves deception, and the researcher may be caught, which could end the research or put them at risk.

Common mistakes

Mixing up participant and overt. "Participant" is about taking part, and "overt" is about whether the group knows. A researcher can be a participant and covert, or a participant and overt. Another mistake is saying observation always gives qualitative data. Non-participant observation can use a tally chart to give numbers. Do not say observations are "high in reliability". Because each situation is unique, they are low in reliability.

Exam-style question

Source A

A researcher wanted to study how the members of a youth sports club treated each other. She joined the club as a volunteer coach and spent a year at training sessions and matches. She told nobody at the club about her research, so everyone just thought she was another coach. She wrote her field notes in a private diary each evening.

(a) Identify two types of observation used in Source A. [2]

(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of the type of observation used in Source A. [4]

Model answer

(a) Participant observation (1) because she joined in as a volunteer coach. Covert observation (1) because nobody at the club knew she was a researcher.

(b) Strength: the members behaved naturally because they did not know they were being studied (1), so the data is high in validity and avoids the Hawthorne effect (1). Limitation: she deceived the members (1), which raises ethical problems, and she could have been found out, which would have ended the research (1).

Exam tip

In (a), use the source to prove your choice. Write "participant because she joined in as a coach" rather than just naming the type.

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