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examBoard: Cambridge
examType: IGCSE
lessonTitle: The positivist approach - scientific method
Sociology is all about studying how society works and why people behave the way they do in groups. There are different ways sociologists try to understand society and one of the most important is called the positivist approach. This approach tries to study society using methods similar to those used in natural sciences like physics or chemistry.
Key Definitions:
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), often called the "father of sociology," first developed positivism. He believed society could be studied scientifically just like the natural world. Comte thought sociology should discover social laws that explain how society works, similar to how physics discovers laws of nature. He wanted to create a "social physics" that could help improve society through scientific understanding.
Positivists believe in studying only what can be directly observed and measured. They think social facts exist independently of people's opinions about them. They aim to be value-free in their research, meaning they try not to let their personal beliefs affect their findings. Positivists look for patterns and cause-effect relationships in society that can be turned into general laws or theories.
Positivists apply the scientific method to study society. This involves a structured process that aims to produce objective knowledge about social phenomena. Let's look at how the scientific method works in sociological research:
Sociologists observe social patterns or problems they want to understand. For example, they might notice that crime rates are higher in certain areas of a city.
They form a testable statement (hypothesis) about what might be happening. For instance, "Areas with higher poverty rates experience more crime."
Sociologists create a plan to test their hypothesis, deciding what data to collect and how to measure variables like "poverty" and "crime rates".
They gather evidence, often using methods like surveys, experiments, or official statistics that produce numerical data that can be analysed.
The data is examined, usually with statistical techniques, to see if it supports or disproves the hypothesis.
Researchers draw conclusions based on their findings and may develop theories that explain the patterns they've discovered.
Positivists prefer research methods that produce numerical data (quantitative methods) because these allow for statistical analysis and are seen as more objective. Here are the main methods they use:
These collect standardised information from large numbers of people. For example, the UK Census collects data from millions of households about employment, housing and family structure. Positivists like surveys because they can reach many people and produce statistics that can be analysed to find patterns.
These test cause and effect by changing one factor (the independent variable) and measuring its effect on another (the dependent variable). Lab experiments are rare in sociology, but field experiments in real-world settings are sometimes used. For instance, researchers might test whether different teaching methods affect exam results.
These are numerical data collected by government agencies and other organisations. Examples include crime rates, unemployment figures and health statistics. Positivists value these because they cover the whole population and are collected regularly, allowing for comparisons over time.
This involves counting and categorising the content of media like newspapers, TV shows, or social media. For example, researchers might count how often women appear in leadership roles in television programmes to study gender representation.
Émile Durkheim's 1897 study "Suicide" is a classic example of positivist sociology. He analysed official statistics on suicide rates across different European countries and found patterns that couldn't be explained by individual factors alone. For instance, he discovered that suicide rates were higher in Protestant countries than Catholic ones, higher among single people than married people and increased during economic crises.
Durkheim concluded that suicide, which seems like a deeply personal act, is actually influenced by social factors like social integration (how connected people feel to society) and social regulation (how controlled they are by social norms). This study demonstrated how the scientific method could reveal "social facts" that exist beyond individual experiences.
Several important sociologists have developed and used the positivist approach:
Founder of positivism who believed society passes through three stages of development: theological (religious explanations), metaphysical (abstract principles) and positive (scientific understanding). He wanted sociology to discover laws of social development.
Developed the concept of "social facts" - forces that exist outside individuals but shape their behaviour. His studies on suicide and religion showed how social factors influence seemingly personal choices.
Developed "middle-range theories" that connect abstract ideas with specific research. His strain theory explained how social structures can pressure people toward deviant behaviour when they can't achieve culturally approved goals.
Today, few sociologists are purely positivist. Most recognise that while scientific methods are valuable, understanding society also requires looking at meanings, interpretations and contexts. Modern approaches often combine elements of positivism with other perspectives.
However, positivist methods remain important in many areas of sociology, especially when:
In your exams, you might be asked to evaluate the positivist approach. Remember to:
The positivist approach has been fundamental to the development of sociology as a discipline. By applying scientific methods to the study of society, positivists have helped identify important social patterns and relationships. While this approach has limitations in understanding the full complexity of human behaviour, it continues to provide valuable tools for sociological research.
Remember that positivism is just one way of studying society. In later sessions, we'll explore other approaches like interpretivism that focus more on understanding the meanings behind social behaviour rather than just measuring it.
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