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examBoard: Cambridge
examType: IGCSE
lessonTitle: Impact of global ecological issues - urbanisation
Urbanisation is one of the most visible effects of globalisation, with cities growing at unprecedented rates across the globe. This growth isn't happening evenly, creating new patterns of inequality between and within societies.
Key Definitions:
In 1950, only 30% of the world's population lived in urban areas. By 2018, this had increased to 55% and it's projected to reach 68% by 2050. This means an additional 2.5 billion people will be living in cities, with nearly 90% of this growth happening in Asia and Africa.
While urbanisation in Global North countries happened gradually over centuries, allowing for planned development, many Global South countries are experiencing rapid, unplanned urbanisation. This creates stark inequalities in urban living conditions, infrastructure and services.
Urbanisation is driven by both push and pull factors, many of which are directly linked to globalisation processes.
Multinational corporations locate factories in urban areas, creating job opportunities. Cities become hubs for global trade and services. Rural areas often lack economic opportunities, pushing people toward cities.
Cities offer better access to education, healthcare and other services. Urban areas provide more lifestyle choices and cultural opportunities. Social networks draw migrants to cities where family or community members have already settled.
Climate change affects rural livelihoods through droughts, floods and unpredictable weather. Natural disasters displace people who often relocate to urban areas. Resource depletion in rural areas makes traditional livelihoods unsustainable.
The way urbanisation unfolds in different societies creates and reinforces global inequalities in several key ways:
Cities in the Global South often lack the resources to build infrastructure fast enough to match population growth. This results in inadequate water supplies, sanitation systems, electricity and transportation networks. Meanwhile, Global North cities continue to upgrade their already developed infrastructure, widening the gap between societies.
When cities grow rapidly without adequate planning or resources, housing becomes a critical issue. In many Global South cities, 30-60% of urban residents live in informal settlements without secure land tenure, proper housing, or basic services.
Lagos is one of the fastest-growing megacities in the world, expanding from 1.4 million people in 1970 to over 21 million today. About 60% of Lagos residents live in informal settlements like Makoko, a floating slum where houses are built on stilts over water. Despite being Africa's largest economy, Nigeria struggles to provide infrastructure for this explosive growth. Residents face daily challenges including:
This contrasts sharply with planned urban development in cities like Singapore, which has transformed from a developing city with slums in the 1960s to one of the world's most efficient urban areas through strong government planning and investment.
Rapid urbanisation creates significant environmental challenges that affect both local and global ecosystems.
Cities can be 1-3°C warmer than surrounding areas due to concrete absorbing heat, lack of vegetation and heat from vehicles and buildings. This increases energy consumption for cooling and worsens air pollution, creating a cycle that contributes to climate change.
Growing urban populations put pressure on water resources. Many cities in developing countries discharge untreated sewage into waterways. In Dhaka, Bangladesh, 80% of wastewater goes untreated, contaminating rivers and groundwater that millions depend on.
Air pollution is a major health concern in rapidly urbanising areas, with the WHO estimating that 9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants. The burden of this pollution falls unequally:
In Delhi, India, air pollution levels regularly exceed WHO guidelines by 10-15 times, causing an estimated 10,000-30,000 premature deaths annually.
As urbanisation continues, innovative approaches are emerging to create more sustainable and equitable cities:
Involving communities in urban planning, especially marginalised groups. Upgrading informal settlements instead of demolishing them. Medellín, Colombia transformed from one of the world's most dangerous cities by connecting poor hillside communities with cable cars and investing in public spaces.
Incorporating nature-based solutions like urban forests, green roofs and rain gardens. Singapore aims to become a "City in Nature" with 200 hectares of new nature parks by 2030 and plans to plant one million trees.
Redesigning urban systems to eliminate waste and pollution. Amsterdam is pioneering circular economy principles by requiring 50% of all municipal procurement to be circular by 2025, focusing on reuse of materials in construction.
Curitiba demonstrates how thoughtful urban planning can create more equal societies even with limited resources. Despite being in a developing country, Curitiba has implemented:
These innovations cost less than conventional solutions while creating a more liveable city with lower inequality. Curitiba spends only 8% of its GDP on infrastructure compared to 15-20% in similar-sized cities.
Urbanisation reflects and reinforces global inequalities, but it also offers opportunities to address them. The UN Sustainable Development Goal 11 aims to "Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable" by 2030, recognising that how we manage urban growth will determine whether globalisation reduces or increases inequalities between societies.
The key challenges remain:
How these challenges are addressed will shape the future of global inequality in an increasingly urbanised world.
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