👥 Dualism
A dualist says the body is physical and will die. The soul or mind is not physical, so it could carry on without the body. The French philosopher René Descartes argued that the thinking mind and the physical body are separate.
The Universe and Human Beings: Key Ideas » Do Humans Have a Soul? Human Nature and Physicalism
What you'll learn this session
Study time: 30 minutes
Edexcel spec: Paper 1, 1.2
- What dualism is, and why many religions say a human being is more than a body
- Different views about immortality and the soul
- Why some people believe human beings have a soul, and why others do not
- What physicalism and humanism say about human nature
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Unlock This CourseWhat is a human being?
You have a body. You can see it, weigh it and measure it. But is that all you are? Or is there also a part of you that cannot be seen, a soul? People have argued about this for thousands of years.
Key terms:
- Soul: the non-physical part of a person, which many people believe is their true self.
- Dualism: the view that a person is made of two things: a physical body and a separate, non-physical soul or mind.
- Immortality: living for ever and never dying.
- Consciousness: being aware of the world, of your own thoughts and of yourself.
- Conscience: the inner sense of right and wrong.
- Near-death experience: an unusual experience reported by some people who came close to death and were revived.
- Physicalism: the view that the real world is nothing more than the physical world.
- Humanism: a non-religious outlook that trusts reason, evidence and shared human values, and holds that this life is the only one.
🙏 More than a body
Most religions teach, in different ways, that a human being is more than a body. Many believers say each person has a spiritual side as well as a physical one. For them, this gives every human life special value.
Immortality and the soul: three views
Religions do not all say the same thing about the soul. There are three main kinds of view.
✨ The soul lives on
Each person lives one life on earth. When the body dies, the soul does not. It is immortal and goes on to a life after death.
🌱 The soul is reborn
The soul is immortal, but after death it is born again in a new body. This can happen many times.
🌊 No fixed soul
There is no fixed, unchanging soul at all. A person is always changing, like a river that never holds the same water twice.
Many non-religious people hold a fourth view: there is no soul of any kind. What people believe happens after death is taught in the lesson Death and the Afterlife: Linear and Cyclical Views.
Why some people believe human beings have a soul
📖 Religious teaching
Many holy books and religious teachers say that humans have a soul. Many believers trust these sources, so for them this is a very strong reason.
📷 A self that stays the same
Look at a photo of yourself aged five. Your body has changed completely, yet you feel you are the same person. Some say this lasting 'me' is the soul.
💡 Consciousness
Humans are aware. We think, imagine, love and ask why we are here. To many people this inner life seems too different from flesh and bone to be only physical.
💬 Conscience
People feel guilt when they do wrong, even if nobody saw. Some believers say this inner voice comes from the soul, or from God speaking to it.
Near-death experiences are a fifth reason. Some people whose hearts stopped, and who were then revived, report feeling deep peace, seeing a bright light or seeming to float above their own body. Some see this as evidence that the soul can leave the body, and so can survive death.
Many non-religious people reply in three ways. First, these people were revived, so they did not die. Second, a brain that is short of oxygen or under great stress could produce strange and vivid experiences. Third, the reports cannot be tested, because nobody else can check them.
Why others believe there is no soul
🔬 No scientific evidence
A soul cannot be seen, weighed or measured. No experiment has ever detected one.
🧠 The mind depends on the brain
Brain scans show the brain at work when people think and feel. A general anaesthetic acts on the brain and switches consciousness off. This suggests the mind is something the brain does.
🚑 Brain injury
Damage to the brain can change a person's memory, mood and even personality. If the real 'you' were a non-physical soul, why would physical damage change who you are?
Many non-religious people also answer the other reasons for a soul. They say memory gives us the feeling of being one lasting person. They say conscience is learned from family and society. They accept that consciousness is not yet fully understood, but expect science to explain it in time.
Physicalism: is the physical world all there is?
Physicalism is the view that the real world is nothing more than the physical world. Everything that exists is made of matter and energy, the things that science studies. On this view there are no souls, spirits or gods.
People hold this view for three reasons. Science has explained many things that once seemed mysterious, such as disease and lightning, without needing anything non-physical. There is no scientific evidence for anything beyond the physical. And one kind of thing is a simpler explanation than two.
For the mind, physicalism means that thoughts, feelings and memories are all the work of the brain. There is no separate soul. When the brain stops working for good, the person's mind ends as well.
Many people reject physicalism. Dualists say nobody has shown how a physical brain could produce the inner experience of being you. Many religious believers say that love, goodness and experiences of God point to a reality beyond the physical.
Non-religious views of human nature
Humanism is the best-known non-religious outlook on human nature. Humanists say that humans are evolved animals who are able to reason and to care about others. They do not believe in a soul or a life after death. Because this life is the only one, they say, people should use it well: think for themselves, be kind and make the world better.
Here is a one-line taste of each religion. Your own religion's lesson will teach it properly.
- Buddhism: Buddhists believe there is no fixed, unchanging soul.
- Christianity: Christians believe each person has a soul that lives on after the body dies.
- Hinduism: Hindus believe the atman (the true self) is eternal and is reborn in a new body.
- Islam: Muslims believe Allah gives every person a soul, which lives on after death.
- Judaism: Jews believe the Almighty gives each person a soul, and that body and soul belong together.
- Sikhism: Sikhs believe the soul comes from God and is reborn until it is united with God again.
Common mistakes
Do not write that all religions teach the same thing about the soul. Do not mix up consciousness (being aware) with conscience (the sense of right and wrong). And do not say physicalists think life is pointless. Physicalism is a view about what exists, not about whether life matters.
What comes next: your own religion's lesson on this topic teaches in detail what its followers believe about the body, the soul and human nature.
Exam-style question
Paper 1 style question. Parts (a) and (b) test AO1. Parts (c) and (d) test AO1 and AO2.
(a) Identify three beliefs about the soul. [3 marks]
(b) Outline two reasons why some people do not believe that human beings have a soul. [4 marks]
(c) Explain why some people believe that human beings have a soul. [6 marks]
(d) 'The real world is nothing more than the physical world.' Evaluate this statement, showing you have considered different points of view. In your answer you should refer to at least one religion. [12 marks]
Model answer
(a) 1. The soul lives on after the body dies (1). 2. The soul is reborn in a new body (1). 3. There is no fixed soul (1).
(b) Some people say there is no scientific evidence for a soul (1), because it cannot be seen, weighed or measured in any experiment (1). Others say the mind depends on the brain (1), for example a brain injury can change a person's personality, which suggests there is no separate soul (1).
(c) Many people believe in a soul because their religion teaches it. They trust their holy books and teachers, so they accept that a human being is more than a body.
Some point to the sense of a self that stays the same. The body changes completely from childhood, yet a person feels they are still the same 'me'. This suggests a lasting, non-physical part of them, the soul.
Others point to consciousness and conscience. Humans are aware of themselves and feel guilt when they do wrong. Dualists argue that this inner life is too different from the body to be explained by the brain alone.
(d) Plan. For: there is no scientific evidence for a soul or anything else non-physical; the mind depends on the brain, as general anaesthetics and brain injury show; near-death experiences could be caused by a brain short of oxygen.
Against: most religions teach that a human being is more than a body; science has not fully explained consciousness; conscience and the lasting sense of self seem to point beyond the physical.
Your religion: add teachings from your own religion, by name, on the side they fit.
Possible conclusion: judge each point as you go, then pick a side. For example: I disagree, because science is the best guide to the physical world, but it has not shown that the physical world is all there is.
Exam tip
In part (d), look hard at the words 'nothing more than'. One good reason to think the mind or soul is more than the brain is enough to challenge the statement.