How do sociologists investigate society? » Primary research methods - questionnaires

What you'll learn this session

Study time: 30 minutes

What questionnaires are and why sociologists use them
Different types of questionnaires and question formats
How to design effective questionnaires
The advantages and limitations of questionnaires
Real-world examples of questionnaires in sociological research
Practical tips for analysing questionnaire data

Introduction to Questionnaires

Questionnaires are one of the most widely used research methods in sociology. They involve a set of written questions that respondents answer to provide data about their attitudes, behaviours, experiences and social backgrounds. Sociologists use questionnaires to collect large amounts of data quickly and efficiently from many people.

Key Definitions:

Questionnaire: A research tool consisting of a series of questions designed to gather information from respondents.
Respondent: A person who answers questions in a questionnaire.
Quantitative data: Numerical data that can be counted and measured.
Qualitative data: Non-numerical data that describes qualities or characteristics.

♦ Types of Questionnaires

Self-completion questionnaires are filled in by respondents themselves. These might be postal questionnaires sent through the mail, online questionnaires completed on websites or apps, or questionnaires handed out in person.

♦ Structured Interviews

Structured interviews are questionnaires administered by a researcher who asks the questions and records the answers. These can be done face-to-face or over the phone. The researcher follows a strict script and doesn't deviate from the questions.

Question Types and Formats

The way questions are worded and structured in a questionnaire is crucial for gathering reliable and valid data. Sociologists use different types of questions depending on what information they need.

✓ Closed Questions

These provide a limited set of response options for respondents to choose from.

Examples:

Multiple choice: "How often do you use social media? a) Never b) Monthly c) Weekly d) Daily e) Several times daily"
Yes/No: "Have you ever experienced discrimination at work? Yes/No"
Likert scales: "On a scale of 1-5, how much do you agree with the statement: 'Social media has a positive impact on society'?"

Advantages: Easy to code and analyse, produces quantitative data, quick to complete

Disadvantages: Limits respondents' answers, may miss important information

✓ Open Questions

These allow respondents to answer in their own words without pre-set options.

Example: "How do you think social media affects your relationships with friends and family?"

Advantages: Provides detailed, qualitative data; allows unexpected responses; gives respondents freedom to express themselves

Disadvantages: Time-consuming to analyse; difficult to compare responses; requires more effort from respondents

Designing Effective Questionnaires

Creating a good questionnaire is both an art and a science. Sociologists need to consider many factors to ensure their questionnaires produce reliable and valid data.

☆ Clear Language

Use simple, direct language that all respondents can understand. Avoid jargon, technical terms and ambiguous wording.

☆ Avoid Leading Questions

Don't phrase questions in ways that push respondents toward particular answers (e.g., "Don't you agree that...?").

☆ Logical Structure

Organise questions in a logical order, starting with simple questions and grouping related topics together.

Practical Tips for Questionnaire Design

Pilot your questionnaire - Test it on a small group first to identify any problems
Keep it concise - Long questionnaires lead to respondent fatigue and poor-quality answers
Include clear instructions - Explain how to complete the questionnaire
Consider your sampling method - How will you distribute the questionnaire to get a representative sample?
Think about ethics - Ensure anonymity/confidentiality and obtain informed consent

Advantages and Limitations of Questionnaires

✔ Advantages

Large samples - Can collect data from many people quickly
Cost-effective - Cheaper than many other methods, especially online questionnaires
Standardisation - All respondents answer the same questions in the same order
Anonymity - Respondents may be more honest about sensitive topics
Quantifiable data - Easy to analyse statistically
Replicability - Other researchers can repeat the study

✘ Limitations

Low response rates - Many people ignore questionnaires
Social desirability bias - People may give answers they think are socially acceptable
Lack of depth - Difficult to explore complex issues fully
Misinterpretation - Respondents may understand questions differently
Literacy issues - Requires reading and writing skills
Self-selection bias - Those who respond may differ from those who don't

Case Study Focus: The British Social Attitudes Survey

The British Social Attitudes Survey is one of the UK's most important questionnaire-based research projects. Running since 1983, it surveys around 3,000 people each year about their social, political and moral attitudes.

The survey uses a combination of face-to-face interviews and self-completion questionnaires. It asks about topics like family life, gender roles, religion, racism and views on welfare.

Findings from the survey help track how British society is changing over time. For example, it has documented increasing acceptance of same-sex relationships and changing attitudes toward gender roles.

The survey demonstrates both the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires. It provides valuable quantitative data from a large sample but may not capture the full complexity of people's views or the reasons behind them.

Theoretical Perspectives on Questionnaires

♣ Positivist Approach

Positivist sociologists favour questionnaires because they:

Produce quantitative data that can be statistically analysed
Allow for testing hypotheses and identifying patterns
Can be replicated by other researchers
Aim to be objective and value-free

Positivists believe questionnaires help sociology be more scientific and produce reliable knowledge about social patterns.

♣ Interpretivist Critique

Interpretivist sociologists criticise questionnaires because they:

Impose the researcher's categories on respondents
Don't capture the meanings people attach to their actions
Provide a superficial understanding of social life
Assume everyone interprets questions the same way

Interpretivists often prefer qualitative methods like unstructured interviews or participant observation.

Analysing Questionnaire Data

After collecting questionnaire data, sociologists need to analyse it to identify patterns and draw conclusions.

Steps in Questionnaire Analysis

Data preparation - Organise and clean the data, check for errors
Coding - Convert responses into numerical codes for analysis
Statistical analysis - Calculate percentages, averages, correlations, etc.
Data visualisation - Create charts, graphs and tables to display findings
Interpretation - Explain what the findings mean in relation to your research question

Real-World Example: COVID-19 Research

During the COVID-19 pandemic, sociologists used questionnaires to study its social impacts. For example, researchers at the University of Essex conducted online questionnaires to explore how lockdowns affected family relationships, mental health and work patterns.

The research revealed that women were more likely than men to take on additional childcare responsibilities during school closures, highlighting gender inequalities in household labour.

This example shows how questionnaires can be used to quickly gather data on emerging social issues and identify patterns across different social groups.

Summary: Key Points About Questionnaires

Questionnaires are structured research tools containing a series of questions designed to collect data from respondents.
They can be self-completed or administered by researchers in structured interviews.
Questions can be closed (with fixed response options) or open (allowing free responses).
Good questionnaire design is crucial for collecting reliable and valid data.
Questionnaires are useful for collecting large amounts of standardised data quickly and cheaply.
Limitations include low response rates, social desirability bias and lack of depth.
Positivists favour questionnaires for their scientific approach, while interpretivists criticise their superficiality.
Analysis involves coding responses and using statistical techniques to identify patterns.