Labelling theory explores how the labels society gives to individuals can significantly impact their self-identity and behaviour. When we look at social stratification (the way society is divided into layers or classes), labelling plays a crucial role in maintaining these divisions.
Key Definitions:
Labelling theory emerged in the 1960s and 1970s through the work of sociologists like Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert. Becker's study of "outsiders" showed how society creates deviance by making rules and applying them to particular people, labelling them as "outsiders." This theory challenges the idea that deviance is inherent in certain actions, suggesting instead that it's a consequence of social reactions and labelling.
Edwin Lemert distinguished between primary deviance (the initial rule-breaking act) and secondary deviance (when someone accepts the label and continues the behaviour). For example, a student who occasionally misbehaves (primary deviance) might be labelled as "troublemaker." If they accept this label and begin to act accordingly, this becomes secondary deviance a direct result of the labelling process.
The self-fulfilling prophecy is a key concept within labelling theory. First described by sociologist Robert K. Merton in 1948, it explains how a false definition of a situation can evoke behaviours that make the originally false belief come true.
The process typically follows these steps:
Teachers may unconsciously treat students differently based on labels like "bright" or "struggling." Students often perform according to these expectations, creating achievement gaps that weren't inevitable.
Young people labelled as "troublemakers" may be watched more closely by authorities, increasing chances of being caught for minor infractions, reinforcing the original label.
Children from working-class backgrounds may be labelled as having "limited potential," leading to reduced opportunities and fulfilling the prophecy of limited social mobility.
In 1968, researchers Rosenthal and Jacobson conducted the "Pygmalion in the Classroom" experiment. They told teachers that certain randomly selected students were likely to show significant intellectual growth. Despite there being no actual difference between these students and others, by the end of the year, the labelled students showed greater improvement on IQ tests. This demonstrated how teacher expectations (based on false labels) created a self-fulfilling prophecy that affected student performance.
Labelling theory helps explain how social stratification is maintained across generations. When people from different social classes are labelled in certain ways, these labels can reinforce their position in the social hierarchy.
Working-class children may be labelled as less academically capable, leading to placement in lower sets or streams in school. This affects their educational outcomes, which in turn affects their job prospects and reinforces their position in the class structure. Middle-class children, conversely, benefit from positive labels that enhance their opportunities.
Stereotypical labels based on ethnicity or gender can create additional layers of stratification. For example, studies show teachers may have different expectations for boys versus girls in certain subjects, or for students from different ethnic backgrounds, affecting their educational outcomes and future opportunities.
Schools are particularly powerful sites for labelling, as they categorise students in various ways that can have lasting impacts on their identities and achievements.
In schools, labelling occurs through various mechanisms:
In his 1977 study, Paul Willis followed a group of working-class boys (whom he called "the lads") through their final year of school. These boys had been labelled as troublemakers and developed an anti-school subculture. They rejected academic work as it didn't align with their perception of masculinity, which was shaped partly by how they'd been labelled. This led them to seek factory jobs like their fathers, thus fulfilling the prophecy that they would remain in working-class occupations. Willis showed how labelling contributed to the reproduction of class inequality.
While labelling theory provides valuable insights into social processes, it has been criticised for several reasons:
Labelling theory doesn't fully explain why some people accept labels while others resist them. It also sometimes underplays the role of individual agency people's ability to reject labels and define themselves. Additionally, it may overemphasise the power of labels while underestimating other factors that contribute to behaviour and identity formation.
Other sociological approaches, such as Marxism, might argue that economic factors are more fundamental in determining life chances than labelling processes. Functionalists might suggest that some labelling serves a purpose in society by helping to maintain social order. It's important to consider multiple perspectives when analysing social stratification.
Understanding labelling theory and self-fulfilling prophecies can help individuals and institutions break harmful cycles:
When discussing labelling theory in your exam, always link it back to social stratification by explaining how labels help maintain social divisions. Use specific examples and case studies to support your points. Remember to consider both the strengths and limitations of the theory, showing balanced analysis. Try to incorporate key sociologists like Becker, Lemert, or Merton to demonstrate your knowledge of the theoretical background.
Log in to track your progress and mark lessons as complete!
Login NowDon't have an account? Sign up here.