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Unlock This CourseThe war of 1859 is often called the Second Italian War of Independence. It lasted less than three months. The Austrians invaded Piedmont at the end of April but moved slowly, and this gave the French time to arrive, many of them by train. Napoleon III led his army in person. Further north, Garibaldi's volunteers, the Hunters of the Alps, beat Austrian forces near Varese and Como in late May.
Key terms:
The French crossed the River Ticino into Lombardy and beat the Austrians at Magenta. The French did almost all the fighting, as most of Piedmont's army arrived too late. The Austrians retreated east, and on 8 June Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel II rode into Milan to cheering crowds.
The Austrians, now led by their young emperor, Franz Joseph, turned to fight. About 300,000 men fought all day, with the Piedmontese fighting at nearby San Martino. The Austrians were beaten and fell back into the Quadrilateral, but close to 40,000 men were killed, wounded or missing.
Venetia was still in Austrian hands, yet Napoleon III suddenly asked for a truce. On 11 July 1859 he met Franz Joseph at Villafranca and agreed peace terms. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II were not consulted.
Why did Napoleon III stop?
What was agreed?
These terms were confirmed by the Treaty of Zurich in November 1859.
Cavour was furious. Piedmont had gained Lombardy, but it had been promised Venetia too, and Austria would still be a power in Italy. He rushed to the king's headquarters, where the two men had a bitter argument. Cavour wanted to reject the terms, even to fight on without France. Victor Emmanuel II knew Piedmont could not beat Austria alone, so he accepted them. Cavour resigned as prime minister in July 1859. He was out of office for six months.
Villafranca said the old rulers should return, but it did not say who would put them back. In Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the Romagna, temporary governments had taken charge. Their leaders, such as Bettino Ricasoli in Tuscany and Luigi Carlo Farini in Modena, wanted union with Piedmont, and the National Society campaigned for it. In August and September 1859, elected assemblies voted to join Piedmont.
Nobody stopped them. Napoleon III would not use force against Italians, and he would not let Austria use force either. Britain's government argued that Italians should choose their own rulers.
In January 1860 Cavour returned as prime minister and made a deal with Napoleon III. France would accept the annexations if the people voted for them, and if France was paid. In March 1860 plebiscites were held in which all adult men could vote. The results were overwhelming. In Tuscany about 366,000 voted for union with Piedmont and about 15,000 voted against. In Emilia (Parma, Modena and the Romagna) about 426,000 voted for union and only 756 against. Piedmont had roughly doubled its population in a year.
The payment was Nice and Savoy, signed over to France in the Treaty of Turin on 24 March 1860. In April, plebiscites there produced huge majorities for joining France, although French troops were already present, the authorities pushed hard for a yes vote, and critics such as Garibaldi said the voting was not fair.
Savoy was mostly French-speaking, but it was the homeland of Piedmont's royal family. Nice was the birthplace of Garibaldi, who angrily said that Cavour had made him a foreigner in his own country. The loss damaged trust between the two men. It also showed nationalists that foreign help always came at a price.
'The main reason Piedmont was able to gain land in the years 1859-60 was the military help it received from France.'
How far do you agree? Explain your answer.
You may use the following in your answer:
You must also use information of your own. [16 marks]
French military help was vital to Piedmont's gains, but it explains only part of them. I will judge each reason by how much land it won and by whether the other reasons depended on it.
French help won Lombardy. Piedmont had lost to Austria alone in 1848-49, but in 1859 Napoleon III brought a large army to Italy. At Magenta on 4 June the French did almost all the fighting, and the Austrians abandoned Milan. At Solferino on 24 June the allies drove Austria back into the Quadrilateral. Without these victories Austria would never have given up Lombardy.
However, French help also had limits. Napoleon III made peace at Villafranca without consulting Piedmont, leaving Venetia to Austria and ordering the rulers of Tuscany and Modena back. If France alone had decided, Piedmont would have gained only Lombardy.
The National Society explains why Piedmont gained more. When Austrian troops left central Italy after Magenta, the society campaigned for union with Piedmont. Leaders such as Ricasoli in Tuscany and Farini in Modena refused to take back the old rulers, and assemblies voted to join Piedmont. In the plebiscites of March 1860 the vote for union was overwhelming, for example about 426,000 to 756 in Emilia. Italian nationalism, not French soldiers, won the Central States.
A third reason was Cavour's diplomacy. By sending troops to the Crimean War he won a seat at the Congress of Paris in 1856, and at Plombières in 1858 he secured the French alliance. His mobilisation in 1859 provoked Austria into attacking first, so France had to fight. In 1860 he returned to office and persuaded Napoleon III to accept the annexations in return for Nice and Savoy. Britain's support for letting Italians choose their rulers also helped.
Overall, I partly agree. French military help was the reason Austria was beaten, and nothing else could have won Lombardy. But the French army won only one of the five territories Piedmont gained. The other four, the Central States, were won by the National Society and by Cavour's bargaining. The French army also depended on Cavour, who brought France into the war in the first place. His diplomacy helped to win all five territories, so it was more important than French military help alone.
What lifts it to the top level: it covers three reasons, argues for and against the statement, and reaches a judgement using two clear tests (how much land each reason won, and whether the other reasons depended on it).
An answer that uses only the two bullet points cannot reach the top level. Here, the third reason is Cavour's diplomacy. Plan your own extra point before you start writing. For more help, see the Exam Skills lesson 'Paper 1 Question (c): The 16-Mark How Far Do You Agree Essay'.