Westward Expansion and Native American Removal, 1803-49 » Texas: Migration, Annexation and War With Mexico

American settlers in Mexican Texas

In 1819 the USA gave up its claim to Texas in the Transcontinental Treaty with Spain. In 1821 Mexico won its independence from Spain, and Texas became part of Mexico. Mexico had few people in Texas, so it invited settlers from outside to farm the empty land and help build the region's economy.

Americans came in large numbers. Stephen F. Austin led the first American colony from 1821, and others followed. Land was cheap and the soil was good for growing cotton. Settlers had to promise to obey Mexican law and become Mexican citizens. Many came from the southern states, and some brought enslaved people with them.

Key terms:

• Mexico: the country that won independence from Spain in 1821 and ruled Texas until 1836.
• Annexation: adding a territory to a country. The USA annexed Texas in 1845.
• Republic: a country with no king, ruled by elected leaders. Texas was an independent republic from 1836 to 1845.
• Border dispute: an argument over where the line between two countries lies.

Mexico takes fright

Within ten years the Americans far outnumbered the Mexicans living in Texas. The Mexican government grew worried that it might lose the region. Three problems stood out:

• Slavery: Mexico abolished slavery in 1829 and tried to stop settlers bringing in more enslaved people, but many settlers depended on enslaved labour for their cotton farms.
• Law and language: most settlers spoke English, kept to their own customs and often ignored Mexican rules.
• Loss of control: in 1830 Mexico passed a law to stop more Americans coming in. It was hard to enforce, and settlers kept arriving.

Tension grew when General Antonio López de Santa Anna took power in Mexico and made the government more centralised, taking power away from the regions. Many Texans felt this took away their rights.

The Texas Revolution and the Alamo

Fighting began in October 1835. The settlers were joined by volunteers from the USA. In February 1836 Santa Anna marched north with a much larger army and besieged the Alamo, an old mission in San Antonio held by fewer than 250 Texan defenders. They included the frontiersmen Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett. On 6 March 1836 the Mexican army stormed the Alamo and killed almost all the defenders.

Texas had already declared independence on 2 March 1836. The Alamo became a rallying cry: it brought in more volunteers, and Texans shouted "Remember the Alamo!" in the next big battle. On 21 April 1836 at San Jacinto, Sam Houston's army defeated Santa Anna and captured him. Santa Anna was forced to sign agreements recognising Texan independence, although Mexico never accepted them. Texas was now an independent republic, with Houston as its first elected president.

Annexation, 1845

Most Texans wanted to join the USA, but the USA refused for almost ten years. Texas would be a slave state, which would upset the North and the balance between free and slave states, and joining would risk war with Mexico, which still claimed Texas.

The question became a major issue in the 1844 presidential election. James K. Polk, who wanted to expand, won. Before he took office, Congress voted to annex Texas, and it became the 28th state in December 1845. The decision was significant for three reasons:

• It added a huge slave state to the Union and made the argument over slavery more heated.
• It angered Mexico, which broke off relations with the USA.
• It led directly to war, because Texas and Mexico disagreed about where the border lay.

The war with Mexico, 1846-48

Texas said its southern border was the Rio Grande. Mexico said it was the Nueces River, further north. In 1846 Polk sent American troops into the disputed land. After a clash with Mexican soldiers, Polk told Congress that Mexico had "shed American blood upon the American soil". Congress declared war in May 1846. Polk also wanted California and New Mexico, and had already tried and failed to buy them.

The US army won. General Zachary Taylor won battles in northern Mexico, and General Winfield Scott took Mexico City in September 1847. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 1848) ended the war:

• The Rio Grande became the border with Texas.
• Mexico gave up California, New Mexico and the land between, about half of its territory.
• The USA paid Mexico $15 million.

The USA now stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Change and continuity

Expansion continued, as with Louisiana and Oregon, but the method changed. The USA gained Louisiana by purchase and Oregon by treaty with Britain. It gained the south-west by war, after settlers had moved in first. One continuity was the problem of slavery: new land raised the question of whether it would be free or slave, which the Compromise of 1850 tried to settle.

Exam-style question

This is a Paper 2 Section B (b) question. You need TWO causes, and for each one you must give precise facts and explain how it led to the outcome. One cause alone cannot score more than half marks.

Explain TWO causes of the war between the USA and Mexico in 1846. [8 marks]

Recap

• From the 1820s American settlers moved into Mexican Texas, and Mexico grew worried about slavery, language and loss of control.
• The Texas Revolution (1835-36), the Alamo and the victory at San Jacinto led to independence in 1836.
• The USA annexed Texas in 1845. It added a slave state, angered Mexico and led to war.
• The war with Mexico (1846-48) ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and added the south-west to the USA.