Two generals, two styles
By 1863 the American Civil War, between the Union (the United States government and the states loyal to it) and the Confederacy (the eleven Southern states that broke away), had lasted two years. Good leadership on the battlefield was now deciding who held the advantage. Two men matter most in this lesson.
Key terms:
- Siege: surrounding a town or fortress and cutting off its supplies until it surrenders.
- Casualties: soldiers killed, wounded, captured or missing.
- Turning point: an event after which the course of a war or other development clearly changes.
🎩 Robert E. Lee (Confederate)
A Virginian and a top US Army officer before the war. He chose to fight for Virginia when it left the Union. He led the main Confederate army in the east from June 1862. Lee was bold. He often attacked first, even when outnumbered, and he won famous victories, such as Fredericksburg in December 1862 and Chancellorsville in May 1863, where his army was roughly half the size of the Union force. His weakness was that his army was small and could not easily replace its losses.
🎖 Ulysses S. Grant (Union)
Grant won his first big victories in the west in early 1862. His approach was to keep pressing the enemy and use the Union's greater numbers and supplies, accepting heavy losses to do so. He did not give up after setbacks. Many earlier Union generals in the east, such as McClellan, had been cautious, and Lincoln removed several of them. Grant's determination was what Lincoln needed.
Gettysburg, 1-3 July 1863
After Chancellorsville, Lee decided to invade the North. He hoped a win on Northern soil would shake Northern morale, strengthen those who wanted peace, and give Virginia's farms a rest from the war. In late June his army marched into Pennsylvania. The Union army, now led by General George Meade, met it at the town of Gettysburg.
- 1 July: the Confederates pushed the Union troops back through the town to high ground to the south.
- 2 July: Lee attacked both ends of the Union line, including a fierce fight at Little Round Top. The Union line held.
- 3 July: Lee ordered a huge attack on the centre of the Union line, known as Pickett's Charge. About 12,000 Confederate soldiers marched across open fields towards Union troops on Cemetery Ridge. They were cut down by rifle and cannon fire, and the attack failed.
On 4 July Lee began to retreat. There were about 23,000 Union and about 28,000 Confederate casualties in the three days. The Confederates could not afford their losses, because the South had far fewer men to call on.
Vicksburg, 4 July 1863
The Mississippi River was the key to the Union's Anaconda Plan to squeeze the South. The Confederates held Vicksburg, a fortress city on high bluffs above the river, and its guns closed the river to Union ships. In spring 1863 Grant took a daring risk. Union gunboats ran past the Vicksburg guns, Grant's army crossed the river below the city, and it marched inland, cutting off the city. After two assaults failed in May, he settled down to a siege.
For about six weeks the people and soldiers in Vicksburg were trapped, short of food, and under constant fire. Many sheltered in caves dug into the hillsides. On 4 July General Pemberton surrendered the city and about 29,000 Confederate soldiers. Days later another Confederate fort downriver, Port Hudson, also fell. The whole Mississippi was in Union hands.
Why these battles mattered
- The South was cut in two. Texas, Arkansas and most of Louisiana were separated from the rest of the Confederacy, so men, horses and supplies from there could no longer easily reach the main armies.
- Lee never again invaded the North in force. After Gettysburg the Confederates were mainly on the defensive.
- Northern morale rose and the Confederacy's hopes of foreign help faded. Britain and France had never recognised the Confederacy as a country and were now even less likely to.
- Grant's reputation soared. In March 1864 Lincoln made him commander of all the Union armies.
Was it really the turning point?
Many historians call July 1863 the turning point of the war, and the two victories came within a day of each other. But the war did not end. The Confederacy fought on for nearly two more years, and Grant and Lee still fought terrible battles in Virginia in 1864. The Union won in the end because the pressure built up, not because of one battle.
Change and continuity
This option is about change over time. Before 1861 the argument over slavery and the rights of states was settled by politicians. By 1863 it was being settled by generals. What changed in 1863 was who held the advantage. What stayed the same was the Union's older advantages in men, factories and ships, which better leadership now allowed it to use.
Common mistakes
- Calling Gettysburg the end of the war. The fighting went on until 1865.
- Mixing up the two battles. Gettysburg was in Pennsylvania in the East. Vicksburg was on the Mississippi in the West.
- Describing Lee as a weak general who was simply beaten by numbers. He won many battles, and the key point at Gettysburg is his decision to attack.
- Giving only one cause in a two-cause question.
Exam-style question
Explain TWO causes of the Confederate defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863. [8 marks]
Model answer
One cause was the Union's strong defensive position. On the first day the Union troops fell back to high ground south of the town, including Cemetery Ridge and Little Round Top. From there they could fire down on attackers and they held firm when Lee's troops struck both ends of the line on 2 July. Because the Confederates were attacking uphill against well-placed defenders, they lost more men than they could win ground, which stopped them from breaking the Union line.
A second cause was Lee's decision to order Pickett's Charge on 3 July. After two days of fighting without a breakthrough, Lee chose to attack the Union centre. About 12,000 men had to cross open ground under rifle and cannon fire and the attack failed with huge losses. As the South had fewer men to replace them, this failure ended Lee's hopes of winning on Northern soil, and he had to retreat on 4 July.
To reach the top level, each cause needs precise facts and a clear explanation of how it led to the defeat, as in both paragraphs here. One cause alone cannot score more than half marks.
Exam tip
Start each paragraph with the cause ('One cause was...'), add dates, places or numbers, then use words like 'because' or 'which meant' to link it to the defeat.