🏯 How it looked
On 1 March 1932 an "independent" state called Manchukuo was announced. Its head was Puyi, the last emperor of China, who had lost his throne as a child. In 1934 he was made emperor of Manchukuo.
Depression, Empire and Collapse, 1931-45 » Manchukuo and the League of Nations
What you'll learn this session
Study time: 30 minutes
Edexcel spec: Paper 2 Section B, Breadth study B3, Key topic 5
- How the Mukden Incident of 1931 led the army to seize Manchuria
- How Manchukuo was set up in 1932 as a puppet state
- What the Lytton Report said and why Japan left the League of Nations in 1933
- What changed and what stayed the same in Japan's relations with the world
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Unlock This CourseWhy Manchuria?
Manchuria is a region of north-east China. Since 1905 Japan had held rights there, including control of the South Manchurian Railway, which Japanese soldiers guarded. This force became known as the Kwantung Army. Manchuria had coal, iron ore and rich farmland. After the Depression hit Japan, many army officers and politicians saw it as an answer to Japan's problems: raw materials, a market for goods and land for settlers. They also feared that the growing Chinese nationalist movement would threaten Japan's rights there.
Key terms:
- Kwantung Army: the Japanese army force that guarded Japan's railway and other rights in Manchuria.
- Puppet state: a state that looks independent but is really controlled by another country.
- League of Nations: the international organisation set up after the First World War to keep peace by discussion and, if needed, pressure on aggressors. Japan was a founder member.
- Sanctions: penalties, such as ending trade, used to punish a country that breaks the rules.
The Mukden Incident, 1931
On the night of 18 September 1931, a small explosion damaged the railway track near Mukden. Officers of the Kwantung Army had planted it themselves, then blamed Chinese soldiers. This is called the Mukden Incident. The army used it as an excuse to attack. Within a few months Japanese troops had seized Mukden and the main cities and railways of Manchuria.
The key point is that the army acted on its own. The government in Tokyo said it did not want the fighting to spread, but the officers ignored it. Nobody was seriously punished, and many Japanese people cheered the victories. Politicians learned that the army could not easily be controlled. This links to the rise of military influence (see the lesson on The Return to Military Dictatorship in the 1930s).
The puppet state of Manchukuo, 1932
🔒 How it really worked
Real power lay with Japanese officials and the Kwantung Army commander. Japan formally recognised Manchukuo in September 1932. Very few other countries did the same.
Japan then moved settlers and businesses into Manchuria and built up its mines and factories. Manchukuo gave Japan resources and a base on the Asian mainland, so it was an important step towards a larger Japanese empire.
The League of Nations responds
China appealed to the League of Nations in September 1931. The League sent a commission led by a British lord, Lord Lytton. Its Lytton Report, published in October 1932, said:
- Japan's attack was not a case of self-defence.
- Manchukuo had not been created by the wishes of the local people.
- Japan did have real interests in Manchuria, and the report suggested a self-governing Manchuria under Chinese rule.
In February 1933 the League's Assembly voted 42 to 1 to accept the report. Only Japan voted against. Japan's delegate, Matsuoka Yosuke, led his team out of the hall in protest, and in March 1933 Japan announced that it was leaving the League.
The League did little else. It had no army of its own and relied on its members, and it did not impose sanctions. Britain and France were reluctant to act so far away during the Depression, and the USA was not a member. Japan kept Manchukuo.
Change and continuity
Change and continuity in Japan's place in the world
Change: After the First World War Japan was a respected League member and a permanent member of its Council. By 1933 it had left the League, was criticised across the world and relied more on its army to get what it wanted. The army had also begun to take foreign policy decisions out of the hands of the government.
Continuity: Japan was still trying to gain land, resources and influence on the Asian mainland, as it had in Korea and Manchuria since 1905. It kept the same railway rights, and the emperor remained head of state.
Common mistakes
Common mistakes
- Thinking the Japanese government planned the Mukden Incident. It was the Kwantung Army that did, and Tokyo was pulled along.
- Saying the League of Nations fought Japan. It only condemned Japan and used no force or sanctions.
- Calling Manchukuo a colony. It was officially an independent state, which is why historians call it a puppet state.
- Mixing up dates: the incident was 1931, Manchukuo 1932, and the walk-out and leaving the League 1933.
Exam-style question
Explain TWO ways in which Japan's control of Manchukuo in 1932 was different from its control of Korea in 1910. (Remember that Korea became a protectorate in 1905 and was annexed outright in August 1910, when it was renamed Chosen.) [6 marks]
Remember: one way alone cannot score more than half marks.
Model answer
One difference is the legal form of control. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea completely, renamed it Chosen and made it part of the Japanese empire. In 1932, however, Manchukuo was set up as an "independent" state under Puyi, the last Chinese emperor, although the Kwantung Army and Japanese officials held the real power. Japan used a puppet state in Manchukuo but open annexation in Korea.
A second difference is the world's reaction. Korea's takeover followed Japan's victory over Russia, and no great power stopped the annexation. In contrast, the takeover of Manchuria brought the Lytton Report, which said Japan had not acted in self-defence, and a League vote of 42 to 1 against Japan. Japan then left the League in 1933, so the Manchurian takeover isolated Japan far more.
What lifts this to the top level: each way is an explicit comparison, with precise facts about both Manchukuo and Korea.
Exam tip
For "Explain TWO ways ... was different", write two paragraphs. In each, put a fact about one period next to a fact about the other and use a linking word such as "whereas" or "in contrast".