💰 Money and foreign troops
China had to pay an indemnity of 450 million taels of silver over about 39 years. Foreign troops were allowed to guard the legations in Beijing and the railway to the coast.
The Fall of the Qing, Warlordism and Chaos, 1900-34 » The Boxer Uprising and the Late Qing Reforms
What you'll learn this session
Study time: 30 minutes
Edexcel spec: Paper 2 Section B, Breadth study B4, Key topic 1
- Why China was weak and under foreign pressure in 1900
- What the Boxer Uprising was and what it led to
- The late Qing reforms: a new army, new schools, the end of the old exams and a promised constitution
"China: Conflict, Crisis and Change, 1900-89" is one of the eight breadth studies in change on Paper 2, Section B. You study only one of them, so use this lesson only if it is one of your chosen options. A breadth study is about change over time, so keep asking: what changed, and what stayed the same?
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Unlock This CourseChina in 1900
In 1900 China was ruled by the Qing dynasty, a family of emperors who were Manchus from the north-east and had ruled since 1644. The real power lay with the Empress Dowager Cixi, who ruled in the name of the young Guangxu Emperor and had put him under guard after he tried to push through reforms in 1898.
China had been shown to be weak. Britain beat China in the Opium Wars and forced it to hand over Hong Kong in 1842 and open treaty ports, where foreigners lived under their own laws. Japan beat China in a war in 1894-95 and took Taiwan. In the late 1890s Germany, Russia, Britain and France each won control of ports and areas of influence, such as Germany in Shandong. Many Chinese people felt humiliated, and the Qing government seemed unable to protect the country.
Key terms:
- Qing dynasty: the family of emperors who ruled China from 1644 until 1912.
- Treaty port: a Chinese port opened to foreign traders by treaty, where foreigners had special rights.
- Boxers: a Chinese secret society, the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, who attacked foreigners and Christians.
- Legations: the buildings in Beijing where foreign diplomats lived and worked.
- Indemnity: money paid by a defeated country to the winners as compensation.
- Constitution: the set of rules that says how a country is governed and limits the ruler's power.
The Boxer Uprising, 1900
The Boxers began in Shandong province in the north. Farmers there had suffered from drought and floods, and they blamed foreigners, especially Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians, for their hardships. The Boxers believed that training in martial arts would make them safe from bullets. Their slogan was to support the Qing and destroy the foreigner.
In 1900 the Boxers spread to Beijing and attacked Christians, churches and railways. In June the German minister in Beijing was killed, and the Boxers and Qing soldiers besieged the foreign legations for about 55 days. Cixi gave the Boxers her support and declared war on the foreign powers.
An army from eight nations, including Britain, Japan, Russia, the USA, France and Germany, marched on Beijing and freed the legations on 14 August 1900. Cixi fled to Xi'an. In 1901 China had to sign the Boxer Protocol.
💥 A weaker dynasty
Officials who had backed the Boxers were punished. The Qing had backed the losing side, and had lost still more respect at home and abroad.
The uprising showed that the old methods could not defend China. Even Cixi now accepted that China had to change.
The late Qing reforms
From 1901 the Qing government began a set of reforms, often called the New Policies. They copied ideas from Japan and the West.
💥 A new army
Part of the army was retrained and armed in modern style, with new weapons, drill and officers who studied at military schools. It was called the New Army.
🏫 New schools
Modern schools and colleges opened to teach maths, science and foreign subjects as well as Chinese classics. Many young Chinese went abroad to study, especially in Japan.
📝 The end of the old exams
For centuries, to become an official you had to pass exams on the Confucian classics. In 1905 these exams were abolished, so the path to a government career changed.
📜 Promise of a constitution
In 1905-06 the government sent officials abroad to study how other countries were governed. In 1908 it promised a constitution, with assemblies, within nine years.
Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 helped to convince many Chinese that a country with a constitution and modern institutions could beat a great power.
Change and continuity
What changed and what stayed the same
Changed: the army, the schools and the way officials were chosen. The government now accepted that foreign ideas were needed.
Stayed the same: the Qing still ruled as emperors, a young child, Puyi, became emperor in 1908, and the promised constitution was still only a promise.
Impact: the reforms cost a lot of money, and taxes rose while China was still paying the indemnity. The new schools and the New Army also produced young Chinese who wanted far faster change. Reform was meant to save the dynasty, but it did not. The next lesson, The 1911 Revolution, shows how it ended.
Common mistakes
Common mistakes
- Saying the Boxers wanted to overthrow the Qing. At first they said they supported it, and Cixi backed them.
- Saying the Boxers won. Foreign armies defeated them and China had to pay.
- Thinking the reforms ended Qing rule. They were meant to save it. The constitution was only promised.
- Giving one cause only in a "two causes" question. That can never score more than half marks.
Exam-style question
Explain TWO causes of the late Qing reforms that began in 1901. [8 marks]
Model answer
One cause was the Boxer Uprising and its defeat. In 1900 the Qing had backed the Boxers and then fought foreign powers, and an army from eight nations freed the legations and marched on Beijing. In 1901 China had to sign the Boxer Protocol, paying an indemnity of 450 million taels and accepting foreign troops. This showed Cixi that the old ways could not protect China, so she began the New Policies, such as the New Army, to make the country strong again.
A second cause was the example of Japan. Japan had modernised its army, schools and government after 1868, and in 1894-95 it beat China and took Taiwan. This showed Chinese leaders that copying Western methods made a country strong, and that China's old system had fallen behind. So when Cixi decided to reform after 1900, she looked to Japan, which is why young Chinese were sent there to study and why the New Army and new schools were modelled on foreign examples.
What lifts this to the top level: two causes, each with precise facts such as dates and figures and a clear link showing how the cause led to the reforms.
Exam tip
For "Explain TWO causes", write two separate paragraphs. In each one name the cause, give a date or figure, then say how it led to the outcome.