🎭 What UNTAG did
Watched the ceasefire, checked that South African troops went back to base, watched the police, and helped refugees come home.
The UN Challenged, 1967-89 » Namibia, 1989: A UN Success
What you'll learn this session
Study time: 30 minutes
Edexcel spec: Paper 2 Section B, Breadth study B5, Key topic 4
- How South Africa came to rule Namibia, and why the UN could not end it for years
- What the UN mission was told to do in 1989
- How a ceasefire, elections and independence followed
- Why this counts as a UN success, and its limits
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Unlock This CourseSouth African rule
Namibia was a German colony until the First World War. In 1915 South Africa took it over, and in 1920 the League of Nations made South Africa its mandate ruler. South Africa was meant to look after the people and prepare them for self-rule. Instead it treated the country almost as part of South Africa and applied its system of apartheid, which kept black Namibians apart from white people and gave them no vote.
After 1945 the UN asked all mandate holders to place their territories under its Trusteeship Council. South Africa refused. In 1966 the General Assembly voted to end South Africa's mandate. In 1971 the International Court of Justice, the UN's main court, said South Africa's rule was illegal. South Africa ignored both decisions.
Key terms:
- Apartheid: South Africa's system of laws that separated people by race and favoured white people.
- SWAPO: the South West Africa People's Organisation, the main Namibian independence movement, led by Sam Nujoma.
- Supervise: to watch over something to make sure it is carried out fairly.
The long delay
SWAPO began an armed struggle against South African rule in 1966. South Africa fought back and used bases in Namibia to attack neighbouring countries. In 1978 the Security Council passed Resolution 435. It set out a plan: a ceasefire, South African troops to leave, and free elections run under UN supervision, with a UN force to watch over them. The plan was drawn up with help from five Western countries, including the USA, Britain and France.
Yet nothing happened for ten years. South Africa kept finding reasons to delay. It did not want SWAPO to win, and it feared a SWAPO government would be friendly to the USSR. The war in neighbouring Angola made things worse, because thousands of Cuban soldiers were there helping Angola's government, and South Africa had fought against them. South Africa and the USA said that Namibia could only become independent if the Cuban troops left Angola.
The deal of 1988
By 1988 the Cold War was easing, and the USSR was less willing to support wars abroad. Fighting in Angola had also become costly for South Africa. After talks led by the USA, with the USSR's support, South Africa, Angola and Cuba signed agreements in December 1988. Cuban troops would leave Angola, and Resolution 435 would start on 1 April 1989.
The UN mission, 1989-90
The UN set up a mission called UNTAG, the United Nations Transition Assistance Group. It was led by a Finnish diplomat, Martti Ahtisaari, on behalf of the secretary-general. It was a mixed force of soldiers, police and civilian staff from many countries. Its job was to supervise rather than to rule.
🗳️ The vote
Checked that voters could register and vote freely, and watched the counting of votes.
The start was nearly a disaster. On 1 April 1989 armed SWAPO fighters crossed from Angola into Namibia, and South African forces were allowed out of their bases to meet them. Hundreds of people died in the fighting. The UN and the countries involved quickly agreed new rules, the fighters withdrew, and the process went on.
Elections were held in November 1989. Voting was peaceful and almost everyone who could vote did so. SWAPO won the most seats but not enough to write the constitution alone, so it had to work with the other parties. Namibia became independent on 21 March 1990, with Sam Nujoma as its first president.
How far was it a success?
Namibia is often called one of the UN's clearest successes. A long dispute ended with an independent country, no new war, and a fair vote that all sides accepted.
✅ Strengths
A clear plan from 1978, Great Powers who now agreed, a mission with a definite job, and all sides willing to accept the result.
⚠️ Limits
It took eleven years to carry out the plan. The UN did not force South Africa to leave: it left only when it chose to.
Change and continuity: the League had given South Africa Namibia as a mandate and could not make it keep its promises. The UN, with a fairer relationship between the Great Powers, finally saw independence through. But as before, nothing worked until the countries with real power agreed.
Common mistakes
- Saying the UN freed Namibia in 1978. The plan was agreed then, but it was carried out in 1989-90.
- Saying UNTAG ran Namibia. It supervised the process, and South Africa still ran the country until independence.
- Writing only about UNTAG. The 1988 deal is the main reason the plan could finally start.
Exam-style question
Explain TWO causes of the UN's success in bringing Namibia to independence in 1990. [8 marks]
Model answer
One cause was the change in the Cold War and the deal of December 1988. Resolution 435 had been agreed in 1978, but South Africa delayed it for ten years, partly because Cuban troops were in neighbouring Angola. In 1988 the USA, with the USSR's support, helped to arrange an agreement under which Cuban troops would leave Angola and South Africa would accept the UN plan from 1 April 1989. This removed South Africa's main excuse for delay, so the UN plan could finally begin.
A second cause was that the UN had a clear plan and a mission able to carry it out. Resolution 435 set out a ceasefire, the return of South African troops to base, and elections. The UN force, UNTAG, led by Martti Ahtisaari, was sent to supervise this. It watched the ceasefire and the voting, so all sides could trust the elections held in November 1989. Because the result was accepted, Namibia could become independent on 21 March 1990.
What lifts it to the top level: each cause is backed with precise facts and is clearly linked to the outcome, and the two causes are different in kind.
Exam tip
Two causes are needed: one cause alone cannot score more than half marks. End each paragraph with a sentence linking the cause to the outcome.