'Dictatorship and Conflict in the USSR, 1924-53' is one of the eight Paper 1 depth studies. You study two of them, so only work through these lessons if the USSR is one of your chosen options.
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Unlock This CourseVladimir Lenin led the Bolsheviks to power in Russia in the revolution of October 1917. His party, renamed the Communist Party, then won a civil war against its enemies. In December 1922 the country became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR or Soviet Union. It was a one-party state: only the Communist Party was allowed.
From May 1922 Lenin suffered a series of strokes. One in March 1923 left him unable to speak. He died on 21 January 1924, aged 53.
Lenin had not named a successor, and there was no rule for choosing one. Most Communists expected the top leaders to rule together as a group. Nobody wanted to look hungry for power, so the struggle to replace Lenin was fought quietly, inside the party.
Key terms:
Two arguments mattered most.
Trotsky believed in 'Permanent Revolution'. He argued that the USSR could not survive alone, so it must keep working to spread revolution to richer countries such as Germany, which could then help it. Stalin answered with 'Socialism in One Country', which he put forward at the end of 1924. He said the USSR was strong enough to build socialism at home first, without waiting for revolutions abroad. Bukharin agreed with him.
The Left of the party, led by Trotsky and later joined by Zinoviev and Kamenev, disliked the NEP because it let private traders and richer peasants make profits. They wanted to end it and build up industry fast, paid for by the peasants. The Right, led by Bukharin, wanted to keep the NEP. He argued that if peasants grew richer they would buy more goods, and industry would then grow steadily.
In 1924 Stalin took neither side over the NEP, which kept his choices open.
In December 1922 and January 1923 the sick Lenin dictated a letter to the party, giving his opinion of its leading members. It is known as Lenin's Testament. He found fault with all of them:
Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya, kept the letter secret until after his death. It was most dangerous to Stalin, but no leader came out of it well.
As General Secretary he could appoint and promote party officials, so many of them owed their jobs to him. He was a patient, skilful organiser. His plain manner and humble background made him seem like an ordinary party member. His rivals underestimated him: one writer who saw him in 1917 remembered only a 'grey blur'.
Lenin's Testament called for his removal. He was a dull speaker and was not seen as a great thinker. His part in 1917 and the Civil War was far less famous than Trotsky's, so few people pictured him as Lenin's heir.
He was the hero of October 1917 and of the Civil War. He was a brilliant speaker and writer, and Lenin had called him the most capable leader. He was popular with the Red Army and with many young party members.
He had only joined the Bolsheviks in 1917, so older members did not fully trust him. Many found him arrogant, and he did not bother to build up supporters in the party. His control of the army made others fear he might become a military dictator. 'Permanent Revolution' sounded like more war to a tired country. From late 1923 he was also often ill.
Don't say Stalin was Lenin's chosen heir. Lenin's Testament wanted him moved from his post. Don't assume Trotsky was bound to win: fame is not the same as support inside the party. And don't mix up the two slogans. 'Permanent Revolution' was Trotsky's idea and 'Socialism in One Country' was Stalin's.
Extract A (a practice extract written for this lesson, in the style of a modern history book)
From a modern history textbook.
In 1924 Trotsky looked like Lenin's natural heir, yet he was a leader without a following. He had joined the Bolsheviks only in 1917, and the old party men never let him forget it. Brilliant and well aware of it, he treated lesser colleagues with open contempt and could not be bothered with the dull business of winning allies. Even his command of the Red Army counted against him, feeding whispers that he dreamed of becoming a dictator.
(a) What impression does the author give about Trotsky's position in 1924?
You must use Extract A to explain your answer. [6 marks]
The author gives the impression that Trotsky's position in 1924 was much weaker than it looked, and that this was largely his own fault. The phrase 'a leader without a following' suggests his fame was hollow, with no real support behind it. The language makes him sound arrogant: he was 'well aware' of his own brilliance, showed 'open contempt' for colleagues and 'could not be bothered' to win allies, which suggests he threw his chances away. The author also selects only his weaknesses, such as joining the party late and the 'whispers' about a dictator. Even his strength, the Red Army, is presented as something that 'counted against him'. Nothing is said about his popularity with soldiers or his skill as a speaker, so the reader is left seeing only a doomed candidate.
What lifts this to the top level: it names one clear impression, then explains how the author's choice of words and choice of what to include and leave out create it.
Notice how this author turns a strength into a weakness: the Red Army 'counted against him'. When an extract treats even the good points as bad, say so. It proves the author has shaped the material to give one impression.